Psych 1101 Final Exam notes PDF

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MODULE 2: METHODSMethods of knowledge acquisition: - Tenacity: it's always been that way - Intuition: it feels true - Authority : the boss says its true - Rationalism : it makes sense logically - Empiricism: i observe it to be true *Science combines rationalism and empiricism Ebbinghaus’s quote sign...

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MODULE 2: METHODS Methods of knowledge acquisition: - Tenacity: it's always been that way - Intuition: it feels true - Authority: the boss says its true - Rationalism: it makes sense logically - Empiricism: i observe it to be true *Science combines rationalism and empiricism -

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Ebbinghaus’s quote signified a revolution in psychology as a science - “Psychology has a long past but a short history” (meaning that psych had moved beyond rationalism to using experimental methods to collect data, observations) Aristotle used rationalism to reason that human thoughts, perceptions and emotions were products of the heart rather than the brain - Recognized the heart as a central part of our being - The heart must be the seat of our sense and emotions - The flaw of rationalism was clear: what we “think” is true about behaviour is often different from how we actually behave

The scientific method: 1. Identify the problem: may be based on observation, research, theory, intuition 2. Gather info: review the scientific literature and examine existing theories of behaviour 3. Develop a hypothesis: after evaluating available info about the area of investigation researchers develop a hypothesis about the outcome of the experiment a. We need an operational definition: must state what you researched/measured (clearly) 4. Conduct experiment: test hypothesis and collect data 5. Analyze data and draw conclusion: determine whether the findings support the experimenters predictions 6. Restart the process: experimenter can chose to redo experiment with some modifications Descriptive methods: - Any means to capture, report, record or otherwise describe a group - Identify the “what is” without necessarily understanding “why it is” - 4 popular methods to describe a group: - Naturalistic observation - Participant observation - Case studies - Surveys - Low constraints: less control over situation: limiting the conclusion from data (ex. Case study, observation, survey)

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High constraints: more control but can be drawn back (correlation research, experiment research)

Naturalistic observation: best described as an observation of behaviour as it happens in a natural environment without an attempt to manipulate or control the conditions of the observation - The lack of manipulation is a key distinction between other approaches - In natural settings like field experiments researchers manipulate and control the condition of behaviour under observation - Observations can be made quantitatively (measure or count specific behaviour) or qualitatively (collecting opinions, notes) - Benefits: help generate new ideas about an observatory phenomenon see “true behaviour” verifies lab results - Disadvantage: researchers lack control over the environment and the many non random selection, usually only descriptive not explanatory - Example: hawthorne effect: animals reactively change their behaviour once they become aware they are being observed * observation of behaviour in real world settings Participant observation: researcher becomes part of the group under investigation - Cons: researchers can be so involved and sympathetic to the group that it interferes with research objectivity or they can influence a participant behaviour - One researchers experience may not be the same as others Surveys: - Con: volunteer bias: people who chose to fill out might not be typical of the broader population - Surveys have a LOW response rate - Response bias Case studies: - Pro: extreme cases that would be unethical to create, good for giving ideas for future research - Con: usually only descriptive not explanatory (don’t include controls to explain why behaviour happened) , limited generalizability → don't know if others will react the same - Studies one individual in great detail Anecdote: one person's experience Acquiescence: refers to a tendency for participants to indiscriminately “agree” with most if not all items on a survey regardless of their actual opinion Response bias: from the participants themselves→ answer how they feel Socially desirable bias: the bias is not indiscriminate, participants respond in ways they think is acceptable by others Illusory superiority: better than average effect (you think you are better)

General ethical principles: 1. Beneficence and nonmaleficence: states that research should strive to do good and avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm participants. Psychologists must carefully weigh the benefits of the research against the cost that participants may experience and put in safeguards to protect the well-being of participants a. Protection of research participants are more important than pursuit of new knowledge 2. Fidelity and responsibility: maintains trust→ researcher should be honest and reliable with participants data, say something when they believe that participants are not being treated fairly 3. Integrity: psychologists should engage in accurate, honest and unbiased practices 4. Justice: those participating in research process should be the same people who stand to benefit from research outcomes *do not exclude any group from participation for reasons unrelated to the study* a. Inclusion criterion: an attribute of participants that is necessary to be a part of a research study b. Exclusion criterion: an attribute of a person that would prevent them from participation research study c. Eligibility criterion: the combination of inclusion and exclusion criteria to create a set of characteristics shared by participants that ensure that those participating will meaningfully help to address the research question 5. Respect for people's rights and dignity: each person is valued in the research process and that researcher should take measures to respect and protect participants' rights, privacy and welfare. Researchers must communicate openingly about research a. Truthful, honest and sincere The practice of ethical research: - The practice of research, federally funded institutions are required to have safeguards in place to ensure ethical principles are being upheld. Research projects conducted in the USA must be reviewed by a research ethics board called institutional review board Must ensure: - The proposed study will use sound research design - Risk associated with participation in the study are minimized and reasonable - The benefits of the research outweigh any potential risks - All participants can make an informed decision to participate in the study and that decision may be withdrawn at any time without consequence to the participant - Safeguards are in place to protect the well-being of participants - All data collected will be kept private and confidential Informed consent: the process by which research participants learn about and understand the purpose, benefits and potential risks of participating in research study → researchers explain procedure, risks and benefits, protection

Vulnerable populations: any group of individuals who may not be able to provide free and informed consent to participate in research: 1. Decisional impairment: any instance when a potential participant has diminished capacity to provide informed consent (children, mentally disabled) 2. Situational vulnerability: instances when the freedom of “choice” to participate in research is compromised as a result of undue influence from another source (military personnel and prisoners who feel obligated to participate in research out of fear of being punished) Researchers should consider the following: - No study should ever be conducted on vulnerable populations if research question could be reasonably carried out using participants without these vulnerability - Researchers should be responsive to needs and conditions - Consent to participate in the research process, parents/guardians and participants Deception: the act of withholding information about the purpose and procedures of the study during the informed consent process - As a result some researchers experiments may seek IRB approval to engage in participant deception or the act of withholding info To approve the use of deception, IRBs must meet 4 criteria: 1. The research poses no more than a minimal risk to participants → meaning the research is unlikely to cause emotional or physical discomfort 2. The deception does not affect the well-being and rights of the participants 3. Researchers must provide justification that using deception is the only way to conduct the study 4. After the participants role in the study is finished, participants should be debriefed by researchers and provided with info about how their contribution contributed to the research Correlation: quantify the relationship between 2 variables - Limited control over variable - they vary naturally as opposed to having participants - No manipulation - POS: one V increase, the other increase ( study more, higher grades) - NEG: one V increase, other decrease (hours slept, errors made by surgeons) - 0: no correlation - Correlation r = 1 to -1 - confounding variable: other variables that may influence one or both variables that we are measuring, thereby influencing the correlation coefficient. - Correlation coefficient: A numerical representation of the strength of the relationship between variables (denoted as r) * CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION Experimental design:

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Allows for conclusions about causation Involves the manipulation of 1 variable Random assignments to groups and control of other variables allows inference of causality - Independant V: variable that is manipulated - Dependent V: variable that is measured - Experimental group: the group of participants that receive the treatment component of the manipulated variable Control group: the group of participants that is the same as the experimental group in every way except that they don’t receive treatment component of the manipulated variable *ensure similar groups→ matching, randomly assign them into a group Experimental group: the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested -

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A simple random sample is a type of sampling where every individual in the population has an equal chance of participating. The advantage of a simple random sample is that, if large enough, it should approximate the larger population we wish to study. A stratified random sample is a more careful approach to random sampling and is particularly useful when there are two or more identifiable subgroups in the population. A stratification divides the population first by subgroups, and then randomly takes samples in proportion to the population of interest. A non-random sample can take many forms but generally follows the rule that not all individuals are equally likely to participate.

Experimental research: - PROS: can establish causal relationships between variables - CONS: artificial, not always ethical Double-blind technique: participant and experimenter do not know who is the experimental group Statistical reasoning: used to determine if the independent variable had an effect on the dependant variable Descriptive statistics: used to organize and summarize data in a meaningful way Describing data: Central tendency: tells us where most of the data falls - What is the typical income of ontarians? Dispersion: tell us how widely spread the data is - How much does income vary between ontarians? Various measures: Central tendency: - Mean: average → used the most to describe data - median : middle score

- Mode: most common score Dispersion: - Range: difference between the highest and lowest score - Variance: essentially take an average of how fate scores fall from the mean - Standard deviation: the larger, the wider the points spread around the mean on average, estimation of average difference of each score to the mean Normal curve: the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes→ most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes Glossary: - Assent: A person's affirmative permission to take part in a research study. In cases of decisional impairment, assent must be obtained in addition to informed consent. - internal validity: the degree to which results may be attributable to the independent variable rather than some other effect of our experiment. - Ex. Can changes in the DV be explained only by manipulation of the IV? - external validity: if a finding speaks to the degree to which a result can be applied beyond the scope of the experiment. - Generalization if the external validity of how the results from an experiment can apply to other settings, other people, and other time periods. Replication not only serves to establish internal validity but can also play a key role in establishing external validity. - Placebo effects can occur if a person believes in a cause-and-effect relationship; these effects represent the power of participants’ expectations in an experimental setting and can be mitigated by the use of placebo groups. Questions: 1. In which part of the scientific method does a scientist propose a problem to solve? When asking a question 2. Why are control groups important in experiments? To allow for a comparison with the experimental group 3. Experiments are different from other forms of research because: the independent variable must be manipulated 4. Experimental research is the only type of research that enables researchers to make conclusions about: cause and effect 5. To definitively support a hypothesis, researchers must demonstrate that the results have statistical significance 6. Psychologists use statistical analysis to: test whether the data from an experiment reject or fail to reject their hypothesis MODULE 3: BIOLOGY AND NEUROSCIENCE Neural: anything related to the nervous system structure or function Triggering an action potential:

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Binding of a neurotransmitter to a receptor Influence of + ions into cell body Opening of voltage- gated Na channels of cell body Opening of k channels

Introduction to neural systems: Central nervous system: brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system: nerves to and from the rest of the body Sensory input → integration → motor output The brain: fun facts: - adults : 3lbs - Newborns: 1lbs - 78% water, 10% fats - It uses about 20% of your energy - Lateralized function Neurons: - Communication cells - Transmit action potentials (nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another - 3 types: sensory, motor, interneurons (most numerous) → process info between other neurons Glial cells: - Provide structural support, nourishment and insulation for neurons Myelin sheath: - Fatty tissue that coats the axon, spreading transmission - Allow nerve impulses to jump from node to node Multiple sclerosis: - Autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks protein in myelin causing it to lose protein when damaged → nerve signals are not transmitted adequately - SYMPTOMS: depends on where the damage is: either central or peripheral The action potential: the electron potential that happens through axon 1. The resting potential: - When the neuron is not active - Difference in charge across the membrane : resting potential - Inside mainly negative, outside mainly positive 2. Depolarizing (firing): - When a stimulus arrives, Na channels open allowing Na ions (+) to rush into the cell, then K channels rush out of the cell

3. Repolarization: sodium channels close, K open to negatively charge the cell, K comes out because it wants to make the cell negative because it is too positive 4. Hyperpolarization: negative charge a bit to the extreme and the cell momentarily has a net negative charge 5. Resting: cell returns to -70mV Electrical activity: Soma - axon hillock- axon - axon terminal - Axon Na channels: propagation of action potential - K channels: maintenance of resting potential All or none response: - Each neuron receives messages from many other neurons - If excitatory > inhibitory: FIRE - If excitatory < inhibitory: DO NOT FIRE - Intensity of sensations/response is coded by the # and frequency of neurons firing, not by the size of the response each neuron gives - As long as its activated enough to depolarize, it will give the same response each time Neural communication: neurons communicate with one another - At the synapse via chemical exchange of neurotransmitters - Presynaptic cell (axon terminal button)→ postsynaptic cell (dendrite) What happens to the leftover neurotransmitter? They get broken down by enzymes and absorbed back into the presynaptic neuron ready for the next action potential Synapse: - The junction between the axon terminal the dendrite/cell body - Axon terminals release neurotransmitters - Synaptic vesicles - Neurotransmitter binds to receptor - Triggers opening/closing of ion channels Drugs: - Agonist: minic NT - Antagonist: block NT effect - Partial agonist: bind and activate to receptor with less power- will bind to receptor for shorter amount of time, resulting in less activation - SSRI: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: slows uptake of serotonin that is not used in the initial synaptic response, making it available for longer → improves happiness (antidepressant, agonist) - Glutamate: excitatory, learning and movement, PCP (causes hallucinations), ketamine (anesthetic)

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GABA: inhibitory, learning, anxiety regulation through inhibition of neurons, valium (used to treat anxiety), flumazenil (used to reverse anesthesia) Acetylcholine: excitatory, learning, muscle action, botox (inhibits release of acetylcholine) Dopamine: excitatory/inhibitory, learning, rewarding/ pleasure, cocaine (prevents reuptake of dopamine, produced euphoria) Serotonin: excitatory/inhibitory, elevation/depression of mood, prozac (prevents reuptake of serotonin, used to treat depression) Norepinephrine: excitatory/inhibitory, elevation/ depression of mood, doxepin (used for treating anxiety and depression) enkephalins/endorphins: excitatory/inhibitory, regulation of pain responses, opiates (morphine, heroin)

Peripheral nervous system: - Somatic nervous system - Nerves from: - Sensory organs to CNS - CNS that stimulates voluntary skeletal muscles - Autonomic nervous system - Controls involuntary muscles as well as certain plants - Sympathetic nervous system: - Fight or flight - Expends energy - Parasympathetic - Rest and digest - Conserves energy Central nervous system: - Brain and spinal cord - Neurons cluster into neural networks - Neurons that fire together wire together - Supports functional activities Divisions of the nervous system: The brain: - Forebrain: uppermost and largest brain region composed of several structures the most prominent being the cerebral cortex (cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system) - Thalamus: Sensory info hub→ processes all senses EXCEPT smell, regulation of sleep - Limbic system: connected set of structures that are involved in forming memories, controlling emotions, decisions, learning, motivation, regulation of endocrine system

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Amygdala: emotional control center: increase electrical activity in its neurons when we are under threat (adrenalin, if damaged, emotions are lost) - Hippocampus: critical for forming new memories - Hypothalamus: maintains homeostasis regulating eating, drinking, sexual behaviour and sleep - Cingulate gyrus: ventricle to neocortex interesting set of neurons → help us focus our attention on things unpleasant - *emotions, memory, smell are connected in limbic system - Cerebrum: two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum (all of our complex human behaviours) - Cerebral (neo) cortex: - Frontal: planning, motor, personality, attention, problem solving - Parietal: secondary visual, somatosensory - temporal : primary auditory memory - Occipital: primary visual - Midbrain: middle region of brain; involved in processing visual + auditory info - Controls reflexes and some voluntary movements - Hindbrain: region at the base of brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord (cerebellum, pons, medulla: supports vital bodily processes) - Medulla: controls unconscious essential bodily functions (breathing, connecting ...