Psychology chapter 10 PDF

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Psychology chapter 10 Personality Personality: Psychological qualities that bring continuity to an individual’s behavior in different situations and at different times What forces shape our personalities? Personality is shaped by the combined forces of biological, situational, and mental processes— all embedded in a sociocultural and developmental context. We can think of personality as the intersection of all the psychological characteristics and processes that make us both human and, at the same time, different from everyone else. What persistent patterns, or dispositions, make up our personalities? The dispositional theories all suggest a small set of personality characteristics, known as temperaments, traits, and types, provide consistency to the individual’s personality over time. What persistent patterns, or dispositions, make up our personalities? Hippocrates Humors: Four bodily fluids that, according to ancient theory, control personality by their relative abundance Personality and Temperament Temperament: • Biologically based • Apparent in early childhood • Establishes the tempo and mood of an individual’s behaviors • Differences arise from balance of neurotransmitters • Influenced by learning Personality as a Composite of Traits Traits • Stable personality characteristics • Presumed to exist within the individual • Guide thoughts and actions under various conditions Patterns in Personality The “Big Five” traits; five fundamental dimensions: • Openness to experience • Conscientiousness • Extraversion • Agreeableness • Neuroticism

Assessing Traits: Personality Inventories NEO-PI (Big Five Inventory) Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) Important attributes of good psychological tests: • Reliability • Validity how do mental processes shape our personalities? While each of the process theories sees different forces at work in personality, all portray personality as the result of both internal mental processes and social interactions. Psychodynamic Theories Emphasis on motivation, the unconscious, and mental disorders  Psychoanalysis: Freud’s system of treatment for mental disorders  Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud’s theory of personality 

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Unconscious: Psychic domain of which the individual is not aware, but which is the storehouse of repressed impulses, drives, and conflicts that are unavailable to consciousness

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Drives and instincts: 1. Eros: Drives people toward acts that are sexual, life-giving, and creative 2. Libido: Drives people to experience sensual pleasure 3. Thanatos: Drives people toward aggressive and destructive behaviors

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Personality and structure: 1. Id: Primitive, unconscious portion of personality; houses most basic drives and stores repressed memories 2. Superego: Mind’s storehouse of values, moral attitudes learned from parents and society; same as common notion of conscience 3. Ego: Conscious, rational part of personality; charged with keeping peace between superego and id

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Psychosexual Stages: Successive, instinctive patterns of associating pleasure with stimulations of specific bodily areas at different times of life Oedipus Complex: • A largely unconscious process • Boys displace an erotic attraction toward their mother and then to females of their own age.

• Boys identify with their fathers. Identification: The mental process by which an individual tries to become like another person, especially the same-sex parent Fixation: Occurs when psychosexual development is arrested at an immature stage Ego Defense Mechanisms • Largely unconscious mental strategies employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety • Denial • Rationalization • Reaction formation • Regression • Repression • Sublimation • Projection Projective Tests • Personality assessment instruments based on Freud’s concept of projection • Rorschach inkblot technique • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Psychic Determinism: Freud’s assumption that all mental and behavioral reactions are caused by unconscious traumas, desires, or conflicts

Evaluating Freud’s Work Objections: • Unscientific • Retrospective • Gender issues • Views of the unconscious Neo-Freudians: • Retained the psychodynamic emphasis • Kept idea of personality driven by motivational energy Carl Jung: Extending the Unconscious Personal Unconscious • Portion of the unconscious corresponding roughly to Freud’s id Collective Unconscious • Jung’s addition to the unconscious, involving a reservoir for instinctive “memories” including the archetypes, which exist in all people

archetypes:   

Animus: the male archetype Anima: the female archetype Shadow: Archetype representing the destructive and aggressive tendencies we don’t want to recognize in ourselves Jung’s principle of opposites portrays each personality as a balance between opposing pairs of unconscious tendencies, such as introversion and extroversion.

Introversion: The Jungian dimension that focuses on inner experience—one’s own thoughts and feelings—making the introvert less outgoing and sociable than the extrovert Extraversion: The Jungian personality dimension involving turning one’s attention outward, toward others Karen Horney: A Feminist Voice in Psychodynamic Psychology Basic Anxiety: An emotion that gives a sense of uncertainty and loneliness on a hostile world and can lead to maladjustment Neurotic Needs: Signs of neurosis in Horney’s theory, these ten needs are normal desires carried to a neurotic extreme Humanistic Theories Emphasis on human potential and mental health Abraham Maslow • Healthy personality • Self-actualizers • Needs in a hierarchy Abraham Maslow and the Healthy Personality Self-Actualizing Personalities: Healthy individuals who have met their basic needs and are free to be creative and fulfill their potentials Emphasis on human potential and mental health Carl Rogers • Fully functioning person • Positive and congruent self-concept • Conditional and unconditional relationships Carl Rogers’s Fully Functioning Person Fully Functioning Person: Term for a self-actualizing individual who has a self-concept that is both positive and congruent with reality Phenomenal Field: Our psychological reality, composed of one’s perceptions and feelings Unconditional Positive Regard: Love or caring without conditions attached

Positive Psychology: The New Humanism? Movement within psychology focusing on the desirable aspects of human functioning, as opposed to an emphasis on psychopathology Social-Cognitive Theories: Emphasis on Social Learning  Observational Learning: Process of learning new responses by watching the behavior of others  Albert Bandura: 1. Expectations of rewards or punishments 2. People learn through observing what happens to others (role models). Reciprocal Determinism: Process in which the person, situation, and environment mutually influence each other Rotter’s Theory: Locus of Control Locus of Control • An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate • Internal vs. external Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Approach • Focuses on rational information processing. • Overlooks the role of emotion and the unconscious • Solid psychological research provides evidence for this approach. • Provides explanation and treatments for a number of mental disorders What “Theories” Do People Use to Understand Themselves and Others? Our understanding of ourselves and others is based on implicit theories of personality and our own selfnarrative—both of which are influenced by culture. Implicit Personality Theories Implicit Personality Theories: Unquestioned assumptions about personality; used to simplify the task of understanding others The Stories of Our Lives Self-Narratives: • Stories one tells about oneself • Creates consistencies through their personalities over time • Self-concept over time Redemptive Self: • The impact of American culture • A desire to overcome obstacles in the effort to help others

Culture and Personality Individualism vs. Collectivism • Focus on the individual vs. focus on the group Fundamental Attribution Error • Overestimating the causes of any behavior as primarily a function of dispositional factors rather than social-situational factors Biology, Human Nature, and Personality According to neuroscientists and evolutionary psychologists: • Brain modules that influence personality: • sex • aggression • hunger • thirst • achievement Environmental Influences: • Early childhood experiences • Birth order Personality Disorders Long-standing maladaptive personality patterns • Narcissistic personality disorder • Antisocial personality disorder • Borderline personality disorder

Psychology chapter 11 Social Psychology Examines the effects of social variables and cognitions; attempts to understand behavior within its social context Social context includes: • Real, imagined, or the symbolic presence of other people • Activities and interactions among people • Settings in which behavior occurs • Expectations and social norms governing behavior in a given setting How Does the Social Situation Affect Our Behavior? We usually adapt our behavior to the demands of the social situation; in new or ambiguous situations, we take our cues from the behavior of others in that setting. Situationism: the external environment, or the behavioral context, can have both subtle and forceful effects on people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors vs. Dispositionism: Tendency to attribute behavior to internal factors such as genes, personality traits, and character qualities Social Standards of Behavior Social Role: Socially defined pattern of behavior that is expected of persons in a given setting or group Social Norms: A group’s expectations regarding what is appropriate and acceptable for its members’ attitudes and behavior Schema: • Cognitive structure • Cluster of related concepts • Provides general conceptual framework for thinking about a topic, event, object, person, and situation • Enables us to make predictions about what to expect in various settings Script: • Knowledge about the sequence of events and actions that is expected in a particular setting Conformity: The Asch Studies What would you say if you were in a room full of people who all picked line number three? Group Characteristics That Impact Conformity • When the group majority is unanimous • The size of the group • When the judgment task is difficult or ambiguous • When group members are seen as competent • When responses are given publicly

The Brain and Social Conformity Social Neuroscience • Uses methodologies from brain sciences to investigate social behaviors • Brain scanning technology (fMRI) • Different brain regions involved in independent judgments vs. conformity Groupthink In “groupthink,” members of the group attempt to conform their opinions to what each believes to be the consensus of the group. Conditions Likely to Promote Groupthink Conditions likely to promote groupthink include: • Directive leadership • High group cohesiveness • Lack of norms requiring methodical procedures • Homogeneity of members’ social background and ideology • High stress from external threats with low hope of a better solution than that of the group leader Obedience to Authority Imagine that an experimenter studying “the effects of punishment on memory” asks you to deliver painful electric shocks to a a middle-aged man who had been treated for a heart condition. Each time the man misses an answer, you would be instructed to deliver an increasingly powerful shock. In Milgram’s experiment: • The victim was an actor • The victim received no actual shocks The controversial experiment demonstrated the powerful effects of obedience to authority. Situational factors, and not dispositional factors, appeared to effect people’s levels of obedience. When Do We Obey Authority? • When a peer modeled obedience • When the victim could not be seen or heard: anonymous • When under direct surveillance • When the authority had higher relative status The Bystander Problem Diffusion of Responsibility • Dilution or weakening of each group member’s obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared with all group members • Experiment: A student was led to believe that the he or she was taking part in an experiment with between one and five other students (over an intercom). • The student then heard what sounded like another student having a seizure and gasping for help.

• The researchers timed how long it would take the students to ask for help. Constructing Social Reality: What Influences Our Judgments of Others? The judgments we make about others depend not only on their behavior but also on our interpretation of their actions within a social context Interpersonal Attraction Reward Theory of Attraction • Social learning view • We like best those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost -

Proximity Self-disclosure Similarity Physical attractiveness

Expectations and the Influence of Self-Esteem Expectancy-Value Theory • People decide whether or not to pursue a relationship by weighing the potential value of the relationship against their expectations of success in establishing the relationship. Attraction and Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance Theory • A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions, especially when their voluntary actions conflict with the attitudes or values (Fessinger) Loving Relationships • Liking and loving are essential for happiness. • Love appears to be part of the circuit and chemistry of our brains. • Different types of love: • parental • friendly • romantic Romantic Love • A temporary and highly emotional condition based on infatuation and sexual desire Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love -

Passion Intimacy Commitment

Romantic Love: high on passion and intimacy low on commitment Infatuation: high level of passion not developed into intimacy yet not developed into a committed relationship yet Complete Love: involves passion, intimacy, and commitment Companionate Love: follows complete love less passion, greater intimacy, and commitment

Making Cognitive Attributions Fundamental Attribution Error • The tendency to emphasize personal traits and minimize situational influences Self-Serving Bias • Attributional pattern in which one takes credit for successes but denies responsibility for failures Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice • A negative attitude toward an individual based solely on his or her membership in a particular group Discrimination • A negative action taken against an individual as a result of his or her group membership In-Group • The group with which an individual identifies Out-Group • Those outside the group with which an individual identifies Social Distance • The perceived difference or similarity between oneself and another person

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causes of prejudice: Dissimilarity and social distance Economic competition Scapegoating Conformity to social norms Media stereotypes Dehumanization

Combating Prejudice Research suggests possible tools for combating prejudice: • New role models • Equal status contact • Legislation How Do Systems Create Situations that Influence Behavior? Systems shape situations, which in turn affect behavior—and by understanding systems, we can learn how to change them and modify their influences on us The Stanford Prison Experiment • Participants were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards. • chosen from large pool of volunteers • no systematic differences between groups before experiment • dramatic differences during the experiment • Guards behaved aggressively. • Prisoners behaved with pathological passivity. • A new social reality was created.

• Forced the experiment to end ahead of schedule Bullying • The act of tormenting others in school classrooms or work settings by one or more persons for personal, sadistic pleasure • Qualifies as a form of ordinary or everyday evil Terrorism Terrorism • The use of violent, unpredictable acts by a small group against a larger group for political, economic, or religious goals Taking multiple perspectives can provide important insights into the problems of aggression, violence, and terrorism. What Induces Aggressive Behavior? • Situations that create prejudice • Frustration • Threat • Wounded pride

Chapter 12 Psychological disorders What Is Psychological Disorder? Three classic signs suggest severe psychological disorder: • Hallucinations • Delusions • Affective disturbances Part of a continuum ranging from absence of disorder to severe disorder Disorders are an exaggeration of normal responses The Spectrum of Mental Disorder

What Is Psychological Disorder? The medical model views psychological disorders as diseases, whereas the psychological view sees them as an interaction of biological, behavioral, cognitive, and socialcultural factors. Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: Historical Roots Ancient World • Supernatural powers • Possession by demons and spirits 400 B.C. • Physical causes • Hippocrates: imbalance of humors Middle Ages • Medieval church • Demons and witchcraft Eighteenth Century • Mental disorders are diseases of the mind. • Similar to other physical diseases • Objective causes requiring specific treatments

Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: The Psychological Model Behavioral Perspective • Abnormal behaviors can be acquired through behavioral learning; environmental conditions Cognitive Perspective • Abnormal behaviors are influenced by mental processes: thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and memory Changing Concepts of Psychological Disorder: The Psychological Model Social-Learning Theory Combines these two perspectives - cognition -> environment -> behavior ->

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Indicators of Abnormality Distress: Does the individual show unusual or prolonged levels of unease or anxiety? Maladaptiveness: Does the person regularly act in ways that make others fearful or that interfere with his or her well-being? Irrationality: Does the person act or talk in ways that are irrational or incomprehensible to others?

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Unpredictability: Does the individual behave erratically and inconsistently at different times or from one situation to another? Is the individual experiencing a loss of control?

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Unconventionality and undesirable behavior: Does the person behave in ways that are statistically rare and violate social norms?

How are Psychological Disorders Classified in the DSM-5? The DSM-5, the most widely used system for classifying mental disorders, organizes psychological disorders by their mental and behavioral symptoms. Overview of DSM-5 Classification System DSM-5 (2013) • Fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders • Includes 300+ disorders • Gives practitioners a common language • symptoms, syndromes, diagnoses, diseases • No definition of “normal” • Recognizes developmental progression Depressive Disorders Abnormal disturbance in emotion or mood Major Depressive Disorder • Form of depression that does not alternate with mania • Accounts for majority of mental hospital admissions • Most prevalent form of disability around the world Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) • Believed to be caused by deprivation of sunlight

Mood Disorders Bipolar Disorder: A disorder involving swings of mood from mania to depression Mania: excessive elation or manic excitement Depression: sadness or despair Anxiety Disorders Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Persistent and pervasive feelings of anxiety, without any known external cause Panic Disorder: Marked by panic attacks that have no obvious connection to events in a person’s present experience Agoraphobia: Fear of public places/open spaces Phobia or Phobic Disorder: Disorder involving a pathological fear of a specific object or situation Cause: Preparedness Hypothesis: The notion that we have an innate tendency to respond quickly and automatically to stimuli that posed a survival threat to our ancestors Obsess...