Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity PDF

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Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity...

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Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity

Shelby Gilmer

Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity ● Behavior genetics- the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior ● Heredity- the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring ● Environment- every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us. ● Chromosomes- threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. ● DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. ● Genes- the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins. ● Genome- the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes ● Identical (monozygotic) twins- develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms ● Fraternal (dizygotic) twins- develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters but they share a prenatal environment. ● The normal range of environments shared by a family’s children has little discernible impact on their personalities ● Researchers use twin and adoption studies to understand how much variation among individuals is due to genetic makeup and how much is due to environmental factors. ● Temperament- a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity. ● Heritability- the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary depending on the range of populations and environments studied. ● Interaction- the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity). ● Molecular genetics- the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity

Shelby Gilmer

● Molecular behavior genetics- the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior. ● Epigenetics- “above” or “in addition to” genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change. ○ Environmental factors such as diet, drugs, and stress can affect the epigenetic molecules that regulate gene expression. ● Evolutionary psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. ● Natural selection- the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. ● Traits that give an individual or a species a reproductive advantage are selected and will prevail ● Mutation- a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. ● Humans have inherited a universal moral grammar. ● Social script- a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations. ● Evolutionary psychologists theorize that females have inherited their ancestors’ tendencies to be more cautious sexually because of the challenges associated with incubating and nurturing offspring. Males have inherited a tendency to be more casual about sex, because their act of fathering requires a smaller investment. ● Environments trigger gene activity ● Our genes influence our developmental differences ● The selection effect is the concept that adolescents tend to select similar others and to sort themselves into like-minded groups. ● Culture- the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. ○ Enables an efficient division of labor ● Norm- an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.

Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity

Shelby Gilmer

● Individualism- giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications. ● Collectivism- giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly. ● Individualists give priority to personal goals over group goals and tend to define their identity in terms of their own personal attributes. Collectivists give priority to group goals over individual goals and tend to define their identity in terms of group identifications. ● Sex- the biolofically influenced characteristic by which people define male and female ● Gender- the socially influenced characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman ● Aggression- any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally ● Relational aggression- an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s relationship or social standing ● Females are more interdependent ● Genetically- males and females have differing sex chromosomes ● Physiologically- males and females have differing concentrations of sex hormones, which trigger other anatomical differences. ● X Chromosome- the sex chromosome found in both males and females. Females typically have two X chromosomes males typically have one. ● Y Chromosome- the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the other produces a male child. ● Testosterone- the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testtoserone in males stimulates growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty. ● Puberty- the period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing. ○ Girls enter puberty earlier

Psychology: Chapter 4, Nature, Nurture, and Human Diversity

Shelby Gilmer

● Primary sex characteristics- the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible ● Secondary sex characteristics- nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair ● Spermarche- the first ejaculation ● Menarche- the first menstrual period ● Prenatal sexual development begins about seven weeks after conception. Adolescence is marked by the onset of puberty. ● Role- a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave ● Gender role- a set of expected behaviors, attitudes and traits for males or for females. ● Gender identity- our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two. ● Social learning theory- the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished ● Gender typing- the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. ● Androgyny- displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics ● Transgender- an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex. ● The biopsychosocial approach considers all the factors that influence our individual development: biological factors (including evolution and our genes, hormones, and brain), psychological factors (including our experiences, beliefs, feelings, and expectations), and socio-cultural factors (including parents and peer influences, cultural individualism or collectivism, and gender norms). ●...