Review sheets 4-7 - professor nick PDF

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Name:_Michelle Bonilla____

Bio 104 Recitation

Review 4: Protists and the Evolution of Eukaryotes

1. Define endosymbiosis: Is the relationship between two species in which one organism lives inside the cell or cells of the other organism (the host). 2. What is the difference between primary and secondary endosymbiosis? The difference between primary and secondary endosymbiosis is that secondary endosymbiosis is when a eukaryote cell engulfs another eukaryote cell that has undergone primary endosymbiosis the main difference is that after the cell is engulfed it becomes dependent on the larger cell 3. Do plants have mitochondria? Plants do have a mitochondria 4. Did red and green alga plastids evolve from the same cyanobacteria? Red and green alga plastids did evolve from the same cyanobacteria 5. Diplomonads and Parabasalids have modified forms of mitochondria (called mitosomes and hydrgenosomes respectively). What is the function of these modified mitochondria and how has it been modified? What do you think are the selective pressures that lead to the evolution of these modified forms of mitochondria? Diplomonads deme energy from anaerobic biochemical pathways - have modified by having two equal sized nuclei and multiple flagella - Don’t use oxygen like mitochondria in plants Parabasalids generate some energy anaerobically 6. Endosymbiosis between an alpha proteobacterium and an ancient eukaryotic ancestor resulted in the evolution of mitochondria. What benefit did each of these organisms receive from this symbiotic arrangement? How did that eukaryotic ancestor obtain energy before this relationship? Endosymbiosis led to the evolution of eukaryotic cells with mitochondria and plastids - allowed these kind of eukaryotic cells to gain a reproductive advantage. 7. What are some of the key pieces of evidence to suggest that mitochondria and plastids evolved from bacteria? Some key pieces are that organelles replicate by a splitting process that is similar to that of certain bacteria -the inner membrane of both organelles have enzymes and transport systems that are homologous to those

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8. !Paulinella chromatophora is a protist that contains a plastid that is derived from cyanobacteria, like all other plastids. Why is this protist of particular interest to scientists? Has a unique photosynthetic structure called a chromatophora. Cell that contains pigment - evolved from a different cyanobacteria than the plastids of other photosynthetic eukaryotes

9. What is a nucleomorph? How does it support theories of secondary endosymbiosis? Nucleomorph - a small vestigial eukaryotic nucleus found between the inner and outer pairs of membranes in certain plastids it supports theories of secondary endosymbiosis by showing that the nucleomorph of the chlorarchniphytes was the nucleus of a green alga that was engulfed by a larger eukaryote. 10. What photosynthetic organisms that we learned about evolved from secondary endosymbiosis? Some photosynthetic organisms that evolved from secondary endosymbiosis are red algae and green algae. Did land plants evolve from secondary endosymbiosis? Land plants did not evolve from secondary endosymbiosis 11. How do Trypanosomes evade the immune system of their host? What disease do trypanosomes cause? Trypanosomes evade the immune system their host by antigenic variation. Diseases that trypanosomes cause are African sleeping sickness 12. Explain alternation of generation in algae. Alteration of generations algae is the most complex life cycle which includes the alternation of the multicellular haploid and diploid generation. 13. Plasmodium, the apicoplexan that causes malaria has phases of its reproductive cycle that must occur in humans, and phases that must occur in mosquitoes. What could the evolutionary benefits of having separate reproductive cycles in different organisms be? The evolutionary benefits of having separate reproductive cycles in different organisms is that it is a lot easier to spread. 14. Explain how micro and macro nuclei contribute to genetic variation in ciliates? Macro and micro nuclei contributes to genetic variation in ciliates by controlling its metabolic and developmental function as well as reproduction. 15. Amoebas are typically characterized by the existence of what organelle? What is the function of this organelle? Are amoebas a monophyletic group? Amoebas are typically characterized by the existence of pseudopods in which its function is to help amoebas move around. Amoebas are a monophyletic group.

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16. Why are cellular slime molds a model organism for studying the evolution of multicellularity? cellular slime molds are a model organism because they spend their life as independent individuals that feeds, grows, and divides by all division and have distinct wall membrane to reproduce.

Name:_Michelle Bonilla____

Bio 104 Recitation

Review 5: Evolution of Fungus

1. What are some striking characteristics of fungus that distinguish them from the rest of the eukaryotic world? Some striking characteristics of fungus that distinguish them from the rest of the eukaryotic world are the multicellular hyphae and the cell walls are made of chitin instead of cellulose like that of a plant. 2. Fungi tend to be heterotrophic, explain how fungi obtain nutrients and how this mode of nutrition is different from other heterotrophs. Fungi obtain their nutrients by absorbing organic compounds from the environment. Fungi rely solely on carbon obtained from other organisms for their metabolism and nutrition. This mode of nutrition is different from other heterotrophs because fungi form symbiotic relationship with its host and other heterotrophs consume/ingest organic compounds as a source of energy 3. Chitin makes up the fungal cell wall and is composed of polymers of glucosamine. Chitin is also found in fish scales, the exoskeletons of crustaceans and insects, and the beaks of cephalopods. Based on your knowledge of eukaryotic evolution, would you hypothesize that the ability to synthesize chitin evolved from convergent or parallel evolution? I would hypothesize that the ability to synthesize chitin evolved from convergent because different ancestor but similar traits.

4. What are septa? What are coenocytic fungi? Which clads of fungus that we have learned about are coenocytic? Septa: is a wall, dividing a cavity or structure into smaller ones. Coenocytic fungi: lack septa, have continuous mass with hundreds or thousands of nuclei. 5. Many fungi have evolved specialized hyphae, which are able to absorb nutrients from plants in mutualistic relationships. What are the differences between ectomycorrhizal fungi and Arbuscular mycorrhizal? Mutualistic fungi often supply phosphate to plants in return for nutrients. What is phosphate so important to life on earth? Differences between ectomycorrhizal fungi and arbuscular mycorrhizal is that the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi do not perpetrate individual cells within the root. Arbuscular mycorrhizal perpetrate the root cells and form two different kinds of structures. 6. What are the major characteristics of glomeromycetes? Major characteristics of glomeromycetes •

obligate symbionts.

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formation of arbuscules in plant roots.

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large, multinucleate spores with layered walls.

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non-septate hyphae.

7. What are deuteromycetes? Deuteromycetes- are a artificial group of fungi of which exist approximately fifteen thousand species 8. What are the unifying factors in the phylum Chytridiomycota (chytrids) that we learned about in class? Why are parasitic chytrids relevant to environmental health? The unifying factors in the phylum chytridiomycota that we learned about in class is that they can be decomposers, parasites or mutualists and have zoospores, flagellated spores. Parasitic chytrids can cause major distortions to the plant tissue and damage it. 9. What stage in sexual reproduction does the zygosporangia form? What is the function of this structure? What clade of fungus typically have zygosporangia? Meiosis is the stage in sexual reproduction that the zygosporangia forms which is a diploid reproductive stage that germinates to the produce a sporangium which releases haploid spores. 10. Explain the basic mechanism of reproduction in fungus. Define the terms Karyogamy, plasmogamy, dikaryotic, and heterokaryotic. Be sure to include an explanation of the asexual stage of fungal reproduction. Fungus can reproduce using both sexual and asexual reproduction. Plasmogamy- is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi in which the cytoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the mycelia) fuses together. Karogamy- is the final step in the process of fusing together two haploid eukaryotic cells 10. What are basidiocarp, basidia, and basidiospores? What evolutionary advantages do they play in fungal reproduction? Basidiocarp is a large sporophore, or fruiting body in which sexually produced spores are formed. Basidia bears sexually reproduced bodies called badiospores. Evolutionary advantages that play in fungal reproduction is that it includes a dikaryotic mycelium (n+n instead of 2n) 11. Explain the major differences in reproduction in basidiomycetes and ascomycetes. The main difference between!these two groups is in the way in which they produce their microscopic spores. In the!Basidiomycetes, the spores are produced externally, on the end of specialized cells called basidia. In!Ascomycetes, spores are produced internally, inside a sac called an ascus.

Name:_Michelle Bonilla____

Bio 104 Recitation

Review 6: The Evolution of Seedless Plants Define: 1. Chlorophyte A lower plant of the division chlorophyta, which comprises the green algae. 2. Charophyte A lower plant of the division of the charophyta, such as stone 3. Bryophyte Plants that are nonvascular and do not form a monophyletic group. 4. Alternation of generations The life cycle that regularly aternates between two multicellular life forms, a diploid and a haploid life form. 5. Gametophyte This is a stuctural form of a land plant that is a haploid and multicellular. It produces haploid gamates by mitosis 6. Sporophyte This is a stuctural form of a land plant that is a diploid and multicellular. It produces haploid spores by meiosis 7. Sporangia Spores that are produced in sporophytes. 8. Sporopollenin A durable polymer that covers exposed zygotes of charophyte algae and forms the walls of plant spores, preventing them from drying out. 9. Archegonia In plants, the female gametangium, a moist chamber in which gametes develop. 10. Antheridia In plants, the male gametangium, a moist chamber in which gametes develop. 11. Apical Meristem A localized region at a growing tip of a plant body where one or more cells divide repeatedly. The dividing cells of an apical meristem enable the plant to grow in length. 12.Cuticle (1) A waxy covering on the surface of stems and leaves that prevents desiccation in terrestrial plants. (2) A tough coat that covers the body of a nematode. 13.Xylem Vascular plant tissue consisting mainly of tubular dead cells that conduct most of the water and minerals upward from the roots to the rest of the plant.

14.Phloem Vascular plant tissue consist- ing of living cells arranged into elongated tubes that transport sugar and other organic nutrients throughout the plant. 15.Stomata A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant. 16.Foot (1)The portion of a bryophyte sporophyte that gathers sugars, amino acids, water, and minerals from the parent gametophyte via transfer cells. (2) One of the three main parts of a mollusc; a muscular structure usually used for movement. Explain 1. What types of organisms are bryophytes? What form represents the dominant life stage, gametophyte or sporophyte? What do bryophytes require environments with water in order to reproduce? Are bryophytes a monophyletic group? Bryophytes are seedless plants without specialized water-conducting tissues. Bryophytes include mosses (phylum Bryophyta), liverworts (phylum Marchantiophyta Hepatophyta), and hornworts (phylum Anthocerophyta).Sporophytes produce haploid spores by meiosis, that grow into gametophytes. Bryophytes are gametophyte dominant, meaning that the more prominent, longer-lived plant is the haploid gametophyte. Liverworts, mosses and hornworts spend most of their lives as gametophytes.Bryophytes also need a moist environment to reproduce. Their flagellated sperm must swim through water to reach the egg. So mosses and liverworts are restricted to moist habitats. Bryophytes are not a monophyletic group. 2. What are the basics of alternation of generation in plant reproduction? DRAW a diagram illustrating the major principles of alternation of generation.

3. What were the evolutionary benefits and challenges associated with the move to land, for plants? Evolutionary benefits:

Challenges:

- unfiltered sunlight

- Scarcity of water

- More plentiful CO2

- Lack of structural support against

- Nutrient rich soil

gravity

4. What types of organisms are classified as seedless vascular plants? How is the life cycle of seedless vascular plants split between the sporophyte and the gametophyte stage? Vascular seedless plants include the club mosses, ferns, whisk ferns, and horsetails.The life cycle of seedless vascular plants alternates between a diploid sporophyte and a haploid gametophyte phase. Seedless vascular plants reproduce through unicellular, haploid spores instead of seeds; the lightweight spores allow for easy dispersion in the wind. The Sporangia produces spores that develop into tiny, heart-shaped gametophytes. The spores then develop into tiny, separate gametophytes. 5. What are the five derived traits of plants? Five derived trait of plants: - Alternation of generations - Multicellular, dependent embryos - Walled spores produced in sporangia - Multicellular gametangia - Apical meristems 6. How does the shape of microphylls and megaphylls relate to the evolutionary function of leaves? Microphylls are small, often spike- shaped leaves with single vein Megaphylls are later leaves with a highly branched vascular system. 7. What is the evolutionary advantage of vascular tissue? Vascular tissue allows a plant to exploit the moisture-holding capacity of soil to satisfy its water needs and also to grow stems to raise its leaves above the ground and its neighbors. Since access to light and moisture is critical for a plant to thrive and reproduce. Compare 1. What traits to modern plants share with charophytes (what molecular evidence is there that suggests plants evolved from algae)? Traits that modern plants share with charophytes is - rings of cellulose- synthesizing proteins - Structure of flagellated sperm - Formation of a ph

2. What are the major differences between chlorophytes and charophytes? Charophytes are the green algae which resemble land plants and are their closest living relative. Chlorophytes are the green algae which exhibit a wide range of forms; they can be unicellular, multicellular, or colonial. 3. What are the major differences in reproduction between bryophytes and seedless vascular plants? The major differences in reproduction between bryophytes and seedless vascular plants is that bryophytes have a dominant gametophyte generation while seedless vascular plants have a dominant sporophyte generation. 4. What is the difference between homosporous and heterosporous plants? What types of plant tend to be homo and heterosporous? What is the evolutionary advantage of being heterosporous? Difference between homosporous and heterosporous plants is that heterosporous are all seed plants and some seedless vascular plants, they also produce megaspores and microspores. Homosporous are most seedless vascular plants. Analyze 1. What do you think are the evolutionary benefits of alternation of generation? Evolutionary benefits of alteration of generation is the advantage of sexual reproduction. This allows terrestrial plants adaptable enough to colonize land. And this can be true with asexual reproduction. 2. Why do you think that plants with a more evolved sporophyte stage have a gametophyte that has reduced in complexity? Plants with a more evolved sporophyte stage have a gametophyte that has reduced in complexity because the sporophyte stage is diploid (2n) and the gametophyte stage is haploid (n). So when a plant has a more evolved sporophyte stage, which is the more dominant stage it over powers the other stages. 3. One way that plants and animals differ in reproduction is that plants produce gametes (egg and sperm) by mitosis, while animals produce gametes by meiosis. However, plants are still able to confer genetic diversity to their gametes through meiosis and recombination. At what stage is plant reproduction does this take place? What is the end product of meiosis in plants? The sporophyte generation stage is where plants are still able to confer genetic diversity to their gametes through meiosis and recombination. The end product of meiosis in plants is a spore 4. What is the evolutionary advantage of having a gametophyte that is completely separate from the sporophyte? The evolutionary advantage of having a gametophyte that is completely separate from the sporophyte is that the gametophyte can create more variation within the gene pool of that species since some can be haploid and others can be diploid.

Name Kimberly Nuñez, Michelle Bonilla, Isaiah Jewell, Rachel Gonzalez, Amber Chauca Bio 104 Recitation Review 7: The Evolution of Seed Plants Define: 1. Seed: plant embryo with nutrients surrounded by a protective coat 2. Reduced Gametophyte: when the gametophyte stage of the plant is no longer the dominant stage. The gametophyte is smaller and within the sporophyte, allowing the gametophyte to be protected from environmental stress and it also can get nutrients from the sporophyte.

3. Pollen: is a very fine powder produced by trees, flowers, grasses, and weeds to fertilize other plants of the same species. 4. Ovules: a structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte 5. Heterospory: when plants produce two different types of spores that can develop into either male or female gametophytes

6. Homospory: when plants produce only one kind of spore, which produces a bisexual gametophyte

7. Mega/Microsporangia: the megasporangia is the female reproductive organ that produces a megaspore. This megaspore becomes a female gametophyte, which will then produce eggs. The microsporangia is the male reproductive organ that produces a microspore. This microspore will develop into a male gametophyte, which will then produce sperm. 8. Integuments: the protective outer layer that covers the mature megasporangium 9. Ovulate Cone: female reproductive organ that holds ovules 10.Pollen: microscopic grains that contain the male gametophyte 11.Pollen Cone: a male reproductive organ that produces pollen that contains the male gametophyte 12.Gymnosperm: plant that has seeds that aren’t protected by a fruit or flower

13.Angiosperm: A flowering plant, which forms seeds inside a protective chamber called an ovary. 14.Stamen / Anther / Filament - The stamen is the male reproductive part of a plant that consists of the anther and filament. The function of the anther is to produce pollen, the male gametophyte, while the function of the filament is to support the anther. 15.Style / Stigma - The style and stigma are both parts of the female reproductive organs of a plant. The stigma is the location where pollen is ...