Rural-Urban Continuum PDF

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Rural-Urban Continuum...

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Rur al Ur banCont i nuum

Ther ur al ur ban cont i nuum i sar out eofsoci oeconomi ccont act be t ween vi l l agesand t ownsorci t i est hatr unsf r om onet ot he ot her .Numer ous cul t ur alchar act er i st i cs ar e bei ng t r ansmi t t ed f r om ur bant or ur all ocat i ons.Forexampl e,f ashi ondesi gnssuch as sl acks,shi r t s,t i es,ski r t s,j eans,and so on,spr ead f r om ur ban t or ur alar easast i mepasses.Fur t her mor e,moder ni deas and i deol ogi esar ebei ngt r anspor t ed f r om ur ban ar east or ur al communi t i esasar esul tofwi despr eadcommuni cat i on vi ar adi o, t el evi si on,newspaper s,and ot hermedi a out l et s.Dependi ng on t hei r pr oxi mi t yt o ci t i es,ur bani sm,or t he ur ban way ofl i f e, begi ns t o emer ge i n ci t i es and subsequent l y spr eads t or ur al ar eas as a r esul t of t hei r ur bani sat i on. The pr ocess of ur bani sat i on hasnotbeen an i nf r equenteventi nr ecenthi st ory . Cur r ent l y ,i n conj unct i on wi t ht he expansi on oft he compl et e r ange ofvocat i onaldi ver si ficat i on,t he devel opmentofl i t er acy , educat i on, mass communi cat i on, and ot her f act or s, t he cont i nui t ybet ween r ur aland ur ban ar eashasbeen hei ght ened si gni ficant l y .Jobsi n ur ban r egi onsand ot herameni t i esofdai l y l i vi nghavebecomest at ussymbol si nr ur alcommuni t i es.Manyof t hemostupt odat eagr i cul t ur aldevel opmentappr oaches,aswel l asmanyoft hei nst i t ut i onalf r amewor ksf orr ur aldevel opment , ar edevel opedi nur banar eas.

Asar esul tofur bani sat i on,t hecommer ci al i zat i on ofagr i cul t ur e on a l ar gescal ehasal so been madepossi bl eon a hugescal e.

Manuf act ur i nguni t si n ur ban r egi onshavegr own i nr esponset o t he i ncr eased demand f or agr i cul t ur al machi nery i n t he agr i cul t ur alsect or .Pr evi ousl y ,al ar genumberofacademi cshel d t he be l i eft hatt her ei s a di scer ni bl e di vi de be t ween t he ur ban and r ur alcommuni t i es.I n spi t eoft hi s,t heconceptofa r ur al ur ban di vi de has under gone a r adi cal t r ansf or mat i on. The exper t sobserved t hatt her ewasagr eatdealofi ndi vi dual i sm,a l ack ofunder st andi ng,anxi et y ,and suspi ci on even among t he peasant s,and t hat t he cal m vi l l age i mage ofr ur all i f e had suffer ed a maj orhi t .Theser esear ch r eveal ed t hatt he t r anqui l communi t yst yl eofexi st encet hatcan bef oundi n vi l l agesi snot ar eal i t y .I n ar emar kabl edevel opment ,t heconceptoft heur ban communi t y exper i enced a t r ansf or mat i on dur i ng t he 1950s.I t was di scover ed t hatf ami l y pr ovi ded an i nt i mat e,i nf or mal ,and secur eenvi r onment .Thati st osay ,t her ear e' Ur banvi l l ages't hat doexi st .Thi sel ementofcompl excul t ur esi squi t eper pl exi ngt o me.I n addi t i on,t her ear et hosewho l i vei nr ur aland wor ki n ci t i esand t owns.Asa r esul t ,nei t hert hehaml etnort het own canbesai dt obeast er eot ype. Whathasbecomeevi dentf r om t hedebat eabovei st hatr ur aland ur banl i vi ngi nacompl exsoci et yar enotdi amet r i cal l yopposedt o oneanot her .I nf act ,i twasnol ongerpossi bl et obel i evet hatt he envi r onment det er mi ned any par t i cul ar f or m of i nt er act i on be t ween t wo peopl e. To asser tt hat t her e ar e no di spar i t i es be t ween r ur alandur banpopul at i onsi snott osayt hatt her ear e none. On t he most common occasi ons, t he r ur al ur ban cont i nuum i susedt oofferal i nearr epr esent at i onoft hedi ffer ent

nat ur esofsoci alt i est hatar echar act er i st i cofr ur aland ur ban set t l ement s.Thi swasawi del yacknowl edged t heor et i calt oolf or cat egor i si ng var i ous f or ms of communi t i es as wel l as t he t r ansi t i onbet weent heset ypesofcommuni t i es.I tal lst ar t edwi t h Soci ol ogy' sat t emptt oexpl ai nt hesoci alchangest hatoccur r edas ar esul tofgr owi ngur bani sat i oni nt heear l yt went i et hcent ury .I t wascommon f orr ur all i f et ot akepl acei n smal l ,geogr aphi cal l y i sol at ed

set t l ement s

t hat wer e

soci al l y

homogeneous,

char act er i sed by hi gh l evel s of r eci pr ocalcont act and soci al sol i dar i t y ,andt hatchangedext r emel ysl owl y . Thef ol l owi ngat t r i but eswer eassi gned t our ban communi t i esi n t heopposi t edi r ect i on:Forexampl e,L.Loui sWi r t hoft heChi cago Schoolbel i evedt hatci t i eswer edi st i nctbecauset heywer el ar ge, dense,andhet er ogeneousandt hatt hi sr esul t edi nt het r ansi ent , di sor der l y ,anonymous,and f or malassoci at i onalr el at i onshi ps t hatar e char act er i st i c ofur ban l i vi ng,as st at ed i n hi s hi ghl y i nfluent i alessay' Ur bani sm asaWayofLi f e'( Amer i canJour nalof Soci ol ogy , 1938) . Si mi l ar i t i es coul d be seen bet ween such under st andi ngs and Fer di nand Tonni es' aspat i al di st i nct i on be t ween gemei nschaf t( communi t y) and gesel l schaf t( soci et y) ( associ at i on) .I n pr i nci pl e,i fal lset t l ement scoul d bepl aced on such a cont i nuum,we woul d have a compr ehensi ve pi ct ur e of how spat i alor gani sat i on affect ssoci all i f e.However ,t hi si snot t hecase. Var i oussoci ol ogi st shaveexpr essed a var i et yofvi ewpoi nt s,and somehaveut i l i sed t heconceptoft her ur al ur ban cont i nuum t o

emphasi set hei deat hatt her ear enoabr uptbr eaki ngpoi nt st o bedi scover edi nt hedegr eeoramountofr ur al ur bandi spar i t i es. 1.Rober t Redfie l d devel oped t he concept of t he r ur al ur ban cont i nuum asar esul tofhi sr esear ch i nt oMexi can peasant si n t he Tepoz t l ai n r egi on of Mexi co. The qui ck pr ogr ess of ur bani sat i on, whi ch has r esul t ed i n t he est abl i shment of i ndust r i es, ur ban char act er i st i cs, and i nf r ast r uct ur e, has r esul t ed i n ar educt i on i nt he di spar i t i es be t ween vi l l ages and ci t i es.

2.I nt hecont extofpr eBr i t i shI ndi a,M.S.A.Raopoi nt soutt hat whi l e bot h vi l l age and t own wer e par toft he same ci vi l i zat i on char act er i sed byi nst i t ut i onsofki nshi p and cast esyst em,t her e wer ecer t ai n speci fici nst i t ut i onalf or msand or gani sat i onalways t hatdi st i ngui shed soci aland cul t ur all i f ei nt ownsf r om t hati n vi l l ages. 3.Accor di ng t o G.S.Ghur ye,ur bani sat i on i s defined as t he movement of peopl e f r om vi l l age t o ci t y , as wel l as t he consequences of t hi s movement f or t he mi gr ant s and t hei r f ami l i es.

4.Macl verobservest hat ,despi t et hef actt hatcommuni t i esar e t ypi cal l yspl i ti nt or ur alandur ban ar eas,t hel i nedi vi di ngt hese t wo sor t s ofcommuni t i es i s notal ways appar ent .Ther ei s no cl ear di st i nct i on bet ween t he ci t y and t he count rysi de t o di st i ngui sh be t ween t het wo.Al mosteveryhaml etcont ai nssome

component s oft he ci t y ,and al mostevery ci t y cont ai ns some char act er i st i csoft hevi l l age.

5.Ramkr i shnaMukher j eepr ef er st hecont i nuum model ,r ef er r i ng t ot he degr ee ofur bani sat i on as a usef ulconcept ualt oolf or under st andi ng r ur al ur ban r el at i ons, whi ch he descr i bes as f ol l ows:

6.Accor di ng t o P.A.Sor oki n and Zi mmer man' s' Pr i nci pl es of Rur al Ur ban Soci ol ogy , 't hevar i abl est hatdi st i ngui sh r ur alf r om ur ban communi t i es i ncl ude occupat i on, popul at i on si ze and densi t y ,aswel lasmobi l i t y ,di ffer ent i at i on,and st r at i ficat i on of t hepopul at i on.

However , succeedi ng r esear ch mai nl y under mi ned t hat i dea. Spat i alar r angement st hemsel ves ar e notdet er mi nantofsoci al i nt er act i ons;even i fsomesect i onsofci t i esar er el at i vel ychaot i c, mor e,f ori nst ancet hesubur bsdo notadher et ot hepar adi gm. One can al so find convent i onal and i nt er per sonal l yi nt i mat e r el at i onshi ps i n ci t i es, as evi denced by t he wor ki ng cl ass communi t yofBet hnalGr eenbyMi chaelYoung,anddi sput esand i sol at i on i nt he count rysi de. Mor eover , bot h ci t y and vi l l age sur r oundcul t ur al l ydi ver segr oups,demonst r at i ngt hatt her ear e nodomi nat i ngcul t ur alf or mst ypi calofset t l ementt ypeandt hat set t l ementt ypedoesnotdet er mi net hechar act erofi nt er per sonal soci alt i es.

Whi l edi scussi ng r ur al ur ban cont r asti twasdi scussed t hati n t er ms ofet hos ofl i f e,cul t ur algr oupi ngs and f or ms ofl i vi ng, vi l l age and ci t y ar e uni que f r om each ot her .They appear as di chot omousent i t i es.Butst r uct ur alcommonal i t i esnever t hel ess r emai n bet ween t he t wo i nr egar dt o pat t er ns ofcast e,l aws of mar r i ageandobser vanceofr el i gi ouscust oms.Vi l l agesandci t i es ar e notabsol ut e uni t s.Admi ni st r at i on,educat i on,empl oyment and mi gr at i on ar ei nst i t ut i onalsour cesofconnect i vi t y bet ween t he vi l l age and t he met r opol i s. I n r ef er ence t or ur al ur ban cont i nuum soci alt hi nker shavedi ver sevi ewpoi nt s. Anumberofsoci ol ogi st sar guet hati ti st ought odi scer nbet ween r ur alandur banar easpar t i cul ar l yi n nat i onswher eeducat i oni s uni ver sal and i ndi vi dual s f ol l ow var i ous vocat i ons, have member shi p i n huge or gani sat i ons and consequent l y have secondar yr el at i ons.Ont heot herhand,anumberofsoci ol ogi st s have concent r at ed on het er ogenei t y , i mper sonal r el at i ons, anonymi t y , di vi si on of l abour , mobi l i t y , cl ass di ffer ence, empl oymentpat t er ns,secul ar i sm et c.ast hei t emst obet hebasi s f ordi st i ngui shi ngr ur al i sm f r om ur bani sm.Theycl ai mt hatr ur al andur banar et wodi chot omousconcept swhi char edi ffer ent i at ed ont hebasi sofabovecr i t er i a. However ,t her e ar e ot hersoci ol ogi st s who st i l lar gue t hatt hi s di chot omy i s notpossi bl e.Ther ei s no absol ut e boundary l i ne whi chwoul dr evealacl earcutcl eavagebet weent hecount ryand t he ur ban communi t y .Secondl y many a t i me most oft hese pr oduct sar er egul arbot ht or ur alaswel lasur ban r egi onswi t h

t he out come t hat i ti s compl i cat ed t oi dent i f yt he t wo. For exampl e,‘ empi r i cal l y ,atl east ,ur ban can bei ndependentofsi ze and densi t y . ”I ft hi si st r ue,t hen hugesi zeand hi gh densi t yof set t l ementar enotal waysr equi r ement sf oranur banwayofl i f ei n any gi ven t own.Si mi l ar l y , O. D.Duncan has r eveal ed by an anal ysi sofquant i t at i vedat at hatsuch char act er i st i csasr el at i ve si z eofi ncomeand agegr oup,mobi l i t y ofpopul at i on,ext entof f or malschool i ng,si zeoff ami l yandpr opor t i onofwomenwor ker s do noteven cor r el at e cl osel y wi t h vi ar eact i ons i nt he si ze of popul at i on.Oscar Lewi s,an ant hr opol ogi st ,doubt s aboutt he act ual i t y of any common cr i t er i a t o di st i ngui sh t he r ur al envi r onmentf r om t heur ban.I nt hi sr egar dal loneneedst oknow i s what ki nd ofan ur ban soci et y ,under what condi t i ons of cont act ,andahostofot heruni quehi st or i caldat at ogr aspr ur al ur bandi chot omy . However ,t her e ar e soci ol ogi st s who f eel t hat r ur al - ur ban di s t i nct i onsar er ealand t o ut i l i set hesenot i onson di chot omi c basi si s necessary f or anal yt i cal pur pose. Dewey obser ves, “ Evi denceaboundst o show t hatmanyoft het hi ngswhi ch ar e uncr i t i cal l yt aken aspar tandpar celofur bani sm donotdepend upon ci t i es f or t hei r exi st ence. Hi st ory demonst r at es t hat cr eat i vi t yi nt hef or m ofi nvent i on anddi scoveryi snotl i mi t edt o ci t i es, t hat l i t er acy i s not r el at ed t o ur bani sat i on t hat hol y r el at i onshi ps ar e st r ongeri n cer t ai n ci t i es t han i n many smal l t ownsandf ar mi ngar eas. ”

The i ncor por at i on ofbot h popul at i on and cul t ur alr oot si nt he wor d‘ Ur bani sm’di st or t st hewhol epr obl em.Peopl eand cul t ur e, i n r eal i t y , ar ei nt erwoven. But t he i nfluences upon human at t i t udesand act i onsoft het wol ogi cal l ymustbedi ffer ent i at ed. Man appear st o be no except i on t ot he gener al nor m t hat consi der abl evar i at i on i n number sand densi t yoft hi ngsbr i ngs aboutuni ver sal l ysi gni ficantchangesi nt henat ur eoft heobj ect s, i nt er act i ons.Var i at i on i n si z eand densi t yofpopul at i on atl east have cer t ai n effect si nr espect ofIanonymi t y ,( i i )di vi si on of l abour ,( i i i )het er ogenei t y ,i nducedandmai nt ai nedbyanonymi t y and di vi si on ofl abour ,( i v)i mper sonaland f or mal l y pr escr i bed r el at i onshi ps,and( v)symbol sofst at uswhi char ei ndependentof per sonalacquai nt ance. Cul t ur e can r ai se orl essen t he i mpactoft hese obj ect s buti t cannot er ase t hem f r om t he ci t y . Ri char d Dewey t her ef or e accur at el y poi nt ed outt hatt hese five f act or s ar e unavoi dabl e accessor i es of ur bani sat i on

and must be t aken

i nt o

cont empl at i oni nunder st andi ngi t . Butt her ear esomesoci ol ogi st swhost i l lbe l i evet hatmet r opol i t an pat t er nsofl i vi ngar epi er ci ngi nt ot her ur alar easandi tmi ghtbe har dt ot r ace a l i ne bet ween t he t wo.I n a haml etwher et he r esi dent swal k,t al k,dr essand ot herwi sedepor tt hemsel vesl i ke ur bani t es,i ti sdi fficul tt oi dent i f ywhet heri ti sar ur alorur ban communi t y . I n anci entt i mes when t owns l i ved wi t hi n wal l s and t he gat es wer el ocked atni ghti twas t he wal l st hatdi st i ngui shed r ur al

f r om ur ban.Such an anci entci t y was l i ke a dwel l i ng f or i t s peopl e,ora sel fisol at ed i sl and.Wi t ht heonsetofi ndust r i al i sm, ci t i es coul d no l ongerbe pr eserved wi t hi n wal l s.As such t he wal l s wer e a bur den,access bei ng mor e cr uci al .Ci t i es t ur ned f r om bui l di ng wal l st o hi ghways.I n moder nt i mes i ti s not gener al l ypr act i calt odr aw abor derbet weenci t yandr ur aldueof t hei rmut uali nt er dependence.Schol ar s,bot hofur banandr ur al soci ol ogy ,ar emost l yi n agr eementt hatr ur alsoci et yt hati snot underur ban i nfluencewoul d bedi fficul tt ol ocat e.On t heot her hand,t her ei snomet r opol i t an communi t ywi t houtal ar geshar e ofpeopl eofr ur alor i gi nnotyetf ul l yur bani sed. Rur al i t es who mi gr at et o ci t i es cont i nue t o keep cont act s wi t h t hei rki ni n vi l l ages.Soci alchange may have damaged f ami l y r el at i onshi ps but cor e r el at i ons have not evapor at ed. The par adi gm ofmi gr at i on i sf r equent l yst ep byst ep f r om haml ett o smal lt own,t obi gmet r opol i sandt omet r opol i t anci t y .I ti swor t h hi ghl i ght i ng i nt hi sr egar dt hat our maj or ci t i es have ‘ r ur al pocket s’ .I not herwor ds,t her ur alpenet r at esi nt ot heci t yast he ur ban penet r at esi nt ot hecount ryand t heci t yand t hevi l l ages ar enotdi chot omousent i t i esbutcot er mi nusor gani sms. Ther ur al ur ban cont i nuum can ber epr esent ed i n adi agr am as f ol l ows:

Thet woext r emesoft hel i ner epr esentt wof or msofl i f eon one r emot evi l l ageand on t heot hermet r opol i t an l i f e.I nt hi swaywe canvi sual i z ecommuni t i esasr angi ngf r om t hemostur bant ot he l eastur ban.The pur el y ur ban and t he pur el yr ur alwoul d be abst r act i onsatt heopposi t epol esoft he‘ r ur al ur bandi chot omy’ . Thi sr angebet ween t heext r emesi st er med bysomesoci ol ogi st s as t he ‘ r ur al ur ban cont i nuum,gener al l yt he vi l l ages havi ng mostcont act swi t ht heci t yt endt obemor eur bani zedt hant hose wi t ht hel eastcont act s.I twoul d di fferwi t ht heur bani t yoft he ci t yandt her ur al i t yoft hecount ry . Thi s wi de fluct uat i on i n defini t i ons has t hr ee i mpor t ant i mpl i cat i ons: i .Offici al cl assi ficat i ons shoul d be t r eat ed wi t h caut i on—f or exampl e,a l ar ge pr opor t i on ofset t l ement s cl assed as ‘ r ur al ’i n Chi na and I ndi a woul df al lwi t hi nt he ‘ ur ban’cat egory ,i ft hey used t he cr i t er i a and popul at i on t hr eshol ds adopt ed by many ot hercount r i es.Gi ven t he si z e oft he popul at i on oft hese t wo count r i es,t hi swoul dsi gni ficant l yi ncr easet heover al lpr opor t i on ofur banr esi dent si nAsi aandi nt hewor l d. i i .I nt er nat i onalcompar i sons ar e di fficul t , as t hey may l ook at set t l ement s whi ch,despi t e bei ng cl assed i nt he same cat egory , maybeverydi ffer enti n bot h popul at i on si z eandi nf r ast r uct ur e. Fur t her ,t her el i abi l i t yofdat aon ur bani zat i ont r endswi t hi n one nat i oncanbecompr omi sedbychangesi nt hedefini t i onofur ban cent r esovert i me.

i i i . Publ i c i nv est ment i n servi ces and i nf r ast r uct ur e t ends t o concent r at e on t he cent r es t hat ar e defined as ur ban.As a consequence,i nv est mentcan bypassset t l ement snotdefined as ur ban even i ft hesecan,andof t en do,havean i mpor t ant‘ ur ban r ol ei nt hedevel opmentoft hesur r oundi ngr ur alar eas.Wi t hi n nat i onalandr egi onalur bansyst ems,l ar gerci t i esal sot endt obe f avour ed wi t h publ i ci nvest mentoversmal l -and i nt er medi at esi z ed ur ban cent r es,i ncl udi ng t hose wi t hi mpor t ant r ol es i n suppor t i ngagr i cul t ur alpr oduct i on,pr ocessi ngandmar ket i ng....