Science, Technology, and Society Prelim Notes PDF

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1. 1 Introduction to Science, Technology and SocietyDefinition of TermsScience - the word came from the Latin "scientia," meaning "knowledge." It refers to the systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation,...

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1. 1 Introduction to Science, Technology and Society Definition of Terms Science- the word came from the Latin "scientia," meaning "knowledge." It refers to the systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation, or both. According to famous American science historian, John Heilbron (2003), " Modern science is a discovery of regularity in nature, enough for natural phenomena to be described by principles and laws. he also explained that science required invention to devise techniques, abstractions, apparatuses, and organizations to describe these natural regularities and their law-like descriptions. Technology- it is the application of scientific knowledge, laws, and principles to produce services, materials, tools, and machines aimed at solving real-world problems. it came from the Greek word techne, meaning 'art, skill, or cunning of hand.' Society- is composed of a group of people living together in a more or less ordered community. Wolpert (2005) made an interesting comparison between science and technology that is helpful in the study of their interaction with society, Wolpert explained that reliable scientific knowledge has no moral or ethical value. It is meant simply to explain how nature and the universe work and that the obligation of the scientists, besides studying the nature of the universe, is to explain the possible uses and applications of such scientific knowledge. Along this line, Wolpert made it clear that science is not the same as technology. Scientists are not responsible for the application of knowledge in technology. He further explained that the very nature of science is that it is not possible to predict scientific discoveries and how these discoveries may be applied. While scientists are not responsible for the reliable conduct of the scientific inquiry and its honest interpretation and dissemination, technological applications of science are influenced by other sectors such as politics and governance, religion, and business. Nowadays, advancements in science and technology have become pervasive. They are manifested in the activities that humans pursue and the tools they use every

day. The beauty of this is that an advancement builds upon itself. As such, humans today live more productive and more exciting lives than their predecessors. However, the dynamism and immensity of scientific and technological progress also pose challenges and drawbacks to the way humans live. The introduction of machines tremendously cut the need for the human workforce and gave rise to the question of whether machines will eventually replace humans. The invention of drugs that cured the previously incurable diseases introduced new strains of bacteria and viruses that are resistant to the very same drugs that once fought themtake an antibiotic-resistant strain of gonorrhea as an example. The rise of social media drastically changed the way humans communicate, interact, and share information; however, this tends to put people's privacy at risk. Indeed, science and technology have served a predominantly double-edged function. As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more observable, the need to pay attention to their interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g. social, political, and economic, becomes even more necessary. How the different aspects of society shape and influence the progression and further developments of science and technology in the area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline called Science, Technology, and Society. Science and Technology and Society is a relatively young field that previously independent and older disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As an academic field, STS, according to Harvard University's Kennedy School (2018) traces its roots from the interwar period and the start of the cold war. It was during the period when historians and scientists found interest in the interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of STS as an academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not really prepare students to respond critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed by science and technology in the contemporary world. Summary In summary, we had discussed the concepts of science, technology, and society. Also, we mentioned that STS applies methods from history, philosophy, and sociology to study the nature of science and technology and ultimately judge their value and place in society. As an interdisciplinary field, the emergence of STS was a result of the question about science and technology's dynamic interaction with various aspects of society and was thus viewed as a socially

embedded enterprise, Thus, STS seeks to bridge the gap between traditionally exclusive cultures-humanities and natural science-so that humans will be able to better confront the moral, ethical, and existential dilemmas brought about by the continued developments in science and technology. 1.1.1 Ethical Dilemmas What is Dilemma? It is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting options neither of which is acceptable. What are Ethical Dilemmas? Ethical/Moral Dilemmas -are situations where persons, who are called "moral agents" in ethics, are forced to choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally acceptable manner. Three Conditions that must be Present in Moral Dilemmas 1. The person or agent of moral action is obliged to make a decision about which course of action is best. (Moral agents = people) 2. There must be different courses of action to choose from. 3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always compromised. (Pros and Cons) Ten Emerging Ethical Dilemmas 1. Helix- a digital app store designed to read genomes. 2. BlessU-2 Popper- first robot priest and monk 3. Emotion-Sensing Facial Recognition- a software being developed to assess your reactions to anything such as shopping and playing games. 4. Ransomware- a way of holding data hostage through the backing and requiring a ransom to be paid. 5. Textalyzer- a device that analyzes whether a driver was using his or her phone during an accident. 6. Social Credit System- a system of scoring citizens through their actions by placing them under constant surveillance. 7. Google Clips- a hands-free camera that lets the user capture every moment effortlessly.

8. Sentencing Software- a mysterious algorithm designed to and courts in sentencing decisions. 9. Friendbot- an app that stores the deceased's digital footprint so one can still chat with them. 10.Citizen App- an app that notifies users of ongoing crimes or major events in a specific area. Even though several items in the list sound unfamiliar to many, they can be a useful springboard in the study of science and technology. The list points to the ever-growing challenges, questions, and issues that need to be addressed and resolved when science and technology, and humanity intertwine. However, methods of critiquing these emerging ethical dilemmas may come from similar methods used in previous critiques of science and technology issues. For example, one can use methods used in critiquing the rise of clinical trials of gene therapy in the 1990s. Today's approach of critiquing emerging science and technology issues, such as the ones listed above, may be influenced by how scientists and nonscientists evaluated the positive and negative purpose, one can continue to specifically draw from the tenets of philosophy, and sociology in making informed and critical judgments of the ethical and moral values of these innovations in science and technology. Summary In modern times, there are different technological advancements in all forms and sizes may it be inside the home, the workplace, the learning place, or simply on the streets. It is not completely impossible for a person in the world to own at least one technological device. However, despite its usefulness and beneficial characteristics, there are still problems faced by technological advancement. To be more specific, these problems are ethical in nature that involve not only the machine but also mankind. It is not impossible for technology and humanity to cross paths because as one would argue, technology has become a necessity for people. At the end of the day, ethics should still be enforced in the field of technology so as ensure the safety and morality of these technologies to people. 1.1.2 Social Implications of Dilemmas What is Social Implication? The social implications of an event or action are the results, on society or part of society, of the event or the action. The idea of social implications can also be extended to a law or a policy, that is, a planned set of repeated actions.

For further information on the topic, I would like you to first click the link below on " Emerging Ethical Dilemmas in Science and Technology and Their Implications." The link enumerates examples of dilemmas and their social implications. 1. Personalized genetic tests/personalized medicine Within the last 10 years, the creation of fast, low-cost genetic sequencing has given the public direct access to genome sequencing and analysis, with little or no guidance from physicians or genetic counselors on how to process the information. What are the potential privacy issues, and how do we protect this very personal and private information? Are we headed toward a new era of therapeutic intervention to increase the quality of life or a new era of eugenics? 2. Hacking into medical devices Implanted medical devices, such as pacemakers, are susceptible to hackers. Barnaby Jack, of security vendor IOActive, recently demonstrated the vulnerability of a pacemaker by breaching the security of the wireless device from his laptop and reprogramming it to deliver an 830-volt shock. How do we make sure these devices are secure? 3. Driverless Zipcars In three states -- Nevada, Florida, and California -- it is now legal for Google to operate its driverless cars. Google's goal is to create a fully automated vehicle that is safer and more effective than a human-operated vehicle, and the company plans to marry this idea with the concept of the Zipcar. The ethics of automation and equality of access for people of different income levels are just a taste of the difficult ethical, legal, and policy questions that will need to be addressed. 4. 3-D printing Scientists are attempting to use 3-D printing to create everything from architectural models to human organs, but we could be looking at a future in which we can print personalized pharmaceuticals or home-printed guns and explosives. For now, 3-D printing is largely the realm of artists and designers, but we can easily envision a future in which 3-D printers are affordable and patterns abound for products both benign and malicious, and that cut out the manufacturing sector completely.

5. Adaptation to climate change The differential susceptibility of people around the world to climate change warrants an ethical discussion. We need to identify effective and safe ways to help people deal with the effects of climate change, as well as learn to manage and manipulate wild species and nature in order to preserve biodiversity. Some of these adaptation strategies might be highly technical (e.g. building sea walls to stem off sea-level rise), but others are social and cultural (e.g., changing agricultural practices). 6. Low-quality and counterfeit pharmaceuticals Until recently, detecting low-quality and counterfeit pharmaceuticals required access to complex testing equipment, often unavailable in developing countries where these problems abound. The enormous amount of trade in pharmaceutical intermediaries and active ingredients raise a number of issues, from the technical (improvement in manufacturing practices and analytical capabilities) to the ethical and legal (for example, India ruled in favor of manufacturing life-saving drugs, even if it violates U.S. patent law). 7. Autonomous systems Machines (both for peaceful purposes and for warfighting) are increasingly evolving from human-controlled to automated, to autonomous, with the ability to act on their own without human input. As these systems operate without human control and are designed to function and make decisions on their own, the ethical, legal, social and policy implications have grown exponentially. Who is responsible for the actions undertaken by autonomous systems? If robotic technology can potentially reduce the number of human fatalities, is it the responsibility of scientists to design these systems? 8. Human-animal hybrids (chimeras) So far scientists have kept human-animal hybrids on the cellular level. According to some, even more, modest experiments involving animal embryos and human stem cells violate human dignity and blur the line between species. Is interspecies research the next frontier in understanding humanity and curing disease, or a slippery slope, rife with ethical dilemmas, toward creating new species? 9. Ensuring access to wireless and spectrum

Mobile wireless connectivity is having a profound effect on society in both developed and developing countries. These technologies are completely transforming how we communicate, conduct business, learn, form relationships, navigate, and entertain ourselves. At the same time, government agencies increasingly rely on the radio spectrum for their critical missions. This confluence of wireless technology developments and societal needs presents numerous challenges and opportunities for making the most effective use of the radio spectrum. We now need to have a policy conversation about how to make the most effective use of the precious radio spectrum, and to close the digital access divide for underserved (rural, low-income, developing areas) populations. 10.Data collection and privacy How often do we consider the massive amounts of data we give to commercial entities when we use social media, store discount cards, or order goods via the Internet? Now that microprocessors and permanent memory are inexpensive technology, we need to think about the kinds of information that should be collected and retained. Should we create a diabetic insulin implant that could notify your doctor or insurance company when you make poor diet choices, and should that decision make you ineligible for certain types of medical treatment? Should cars be equipped to monitor speed and other measures of good driving, and should this data be subpoenaed by authorities following a crash? These issues require appropriate policy discussions in order to the gap between data collection and meaningful outcomes. 11.Human enhancements Pharmaceutical, surgical, mechanical, and neurological enhancements are already available for therapeutic purposes. But these same enhancements can be used to magnify human biological function beyond the societal norm. Where do we draw the line between therapy and enhancement? How do we justify enhancing human bodies when so many individuals still lack access to basic therapeutic medicine? Summary Technologies are indeed an inevitable part of one's life, society, and other stakeholders. It makes life easier and more convenient than ever before. It can clearly be seen from the simplest task at home to the most complicated ones inside the office or laboratory. As time progresses, technology keeps also on progressing resulting in more complicated advancements and discoveries in science and technology. However, it is essential to note that anything too much is bad. The

same problem is faced by technology. Although it has been very helpful to people, various social implications have been considered that needs to be addressed by the stakeholders in order to safeguard the life of individuals as well as society. 1. 2 Historical Antecedents in the Course of Science and Technology One of the key interests of STS as an academic field is the history of science and technology. As a strand of STS, the history of science and technology focuses on how science and technology have changed across time. Also, it explores the impacts of scientific and technological innovations on the prevailing social, cultural, political, and economic contexts throughout history. Conversely, it also pays attention to the conditions that shaped science and technology. Quite often, interests lie in historical antecedents of scientific and technological innovations. What is Antecedent? Antecedent- it is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence of something. Thus, historical antecedents in science and technology are factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated scientific and technological innovations today. Knowledge of the history of science and technology in use in appraising these innovations today. By understanding how previous generations influenced and were influenced can come up with informed decisions on the proper application of science and technology to daily life. 1.2.1 Ancient Some Inventions During Ancient Times 1. Ancient Wheel- People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long before the invention of the wheel. No one knows who exactly invented the wheel and when. There is, however, a general agreement that the ancient wheel grew out of a mechanical device called the potter's wheel- a heavy flat disk made up of hardened clay that was spun horizontally on an axis. The invention of the wheel is often credited to the Sumerians since no other ancient civilization used a similar device at the time. Today, cars, carts, bicycles, and trucks are just some of the many offshoots of the wheels invented by the Sumerians. 2. Paper- Roughly around 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians began writing on papyrus, a material similar to thick paper. Papyrus is made from the pith of

the papyrus plant cyperus papyrus. It is lightweight, strong, durable, and portable. Before the Egyptians invented the papyrus, the writing was done on stone. With the advent of the papyrus, documentation, and recordkeeping become efficient, widespread, and vast. Through its use, information dissemination became exponentially faster. records were kept and stood the test of times. 3. Shadoof- The shadoof was an early tool invented and used by Egyptians to irrigate the land. It is a hand-operated device used for lifting water. Its invention introduced the idea of lifting things using counterweights. Because of this invention, irrigation and farming became much more efficient. The shadoof is also believed to be an ancient precursor of more sophisticated irrigation tools. Please click the video to watch how the shadoof is being made and used. 4. Antikythera Mechanism- Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern computer, the Greeks had already invented the ancient world's analog computer orrery. Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the waters of Antikythera, Greece. Antikythera mechanism is similar to a mantel clock and it is known as antecedents of modern clockwork. 5. Aeolipile- Also known as the Hero's engine, the aeolipile is widely believed to be the ancient precursor of the steam engine. It is a steam-powered turbine that spun when the water container at its center was heated, thus making it practically the first rudimentary steam engine. Summary In summary, we have mentioned that ancient people were concerned with transportation, navigation, communication, record-keeping, mass production, security, and protection, as well as health, and architecture. They continuously invented new things because of their desire to raise the quality of life and because of their inventions, people of today are enjoying the offshoots of their discoveries and inventions such as the wheel, paper, shadoof, Antikythera, and an aeolipile. 1.2. 2 Medieval Medieval Age occurred between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the colonial expansion of Western Europe in the late 15th century AD, major advances in scientific and technological developments took place. The Middle Age was not as stagnant as alternate terms such as the...