Seeley\'s Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology Chapter 1-4 PDF

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Ch. 1: The Human Organism ● Anatomy ○ A&P is the study of the structure and function of human body ○ Coordinated function of all parts of body allow us to detect changes or stimuli, respond to stimuli, and/or perform many other actions ○ Knowing A&P allows us to evaluate treatments ○ Anatomy: study of structure ■ Means to ‘dissect’ or to ‘cut apart and separate’ ■ Systemic Anatomy: studies body systems, such as cardiovascular, nervous, skeletal, and muscular systems (classic approach) ■ Regional Anatomy: studies body regions, such as the head, abdomen, or arm; all systems in these said areas are studied simultaneously (approach used in med./dent. school) ■ Surface Anatomy: studies external features, such as bony projections, which serve as landmarks for locating deeper structures (help w/ disease diagnosis) ■ Anatomical Imaging: uses x-rays, ultrasound, MRIs, etc. to create pictures of internal structures (help w/ disease diagnosis) ● Physiology: study of function ○ Goals: ■ To understand and predict body’s responses to stimuli ■ To understand how the body maintains conditions within a narrow range of values in the presence of changing internal and external environments ● Human Physiology: study of a specific organism, the human ○ Cellular Physiology & Systemic Physiology are subdivisions

● Structural & Functional Organization of the Human Body ● 6 levels of organization: 1. Chemical Level (SMALLEST) a. Involves how atoms, such as hydrogen and carbon, interact and combine into molecules 2. Cell Level a. Cells: basic unit of life

3. Tissue Level a. Tissue: group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them b. Characteristics of the cells and surrounding materials determine the functions of the tissue c. 4 main types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous 4. Organ Level a. Organ: composed of 2 or more tissue types that together perform one or more common functions 5. Organ System Level a. Organ System: group of organs classified as a unit because of a common function or set of functions b. Dysfunction within one organ system can have profound effects on other systems 6. Organism Level a. Organism: any living thing considered as a whole, whether composed of one cell (like a bacterium) or of trillions of cells (like a human) b. Human organism is a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent on one another

● The 6 Characteristics of Life: 1. Organization a. Refers to specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how such parts interact to perform specific functions b. Some cells are composed of highly specialized organelles 2. Metabolism: the ability to use energy to perform vital functions, such as growth, movement, and reproduction 3. Responsiveness a. Ability of an organism to sense changes in the environment and make the adjustments to help maintain its life 4. Growth a. Increase in size of all or part of the organism

b. Results from an increase in cell number, cell size, or the amount of substance surrounding cells 5. Development a. Changes an organism undergoes through time (begins with fertilization and ends at death) b. Involves both growth and differentiation c. Differentiation: change in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized 6. Reproduction a. Formation of new cells or new organisms ● Homeostasis: maintenance of a constant internal environment ○ Maintain a narrow range of conditions by balancing system variables (body condition that changes) ○ Homeostatic Mechanisms: ■ Sweating/shivering maintain body temperature near a set point: an ideal normal value (normally about 37 degrees Celsius) ● Temp. may still increase/decrease slightly which produces an optimal range of values ■ Correctional Mechanism: process that brings the variable back into the normal range ○ Negative-Feedback Mechanisms: mechanism by which any deviation from an ideal normal value or set point is resisted or negated; returns a parameter to its normal range and thereby maintains homeostasis ■ Negative means that any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted ■ Ends the correctional mechanism! ● If NF mechanisms aren’t working properly, disease states may result ■ Have 3 components: ● Sensor: ○ Monitors the value of a variable ● Processor/Control Center: ○ Compare the variable’s status with set point ● Effector: ○ Can change the value of the variable ○ A changed variable is a stimulus because it initiates a homeostatic mechanism Iif blood pressure increases, heart rate will lower and blood vessels will dilate to lower blood pressure; if blood pressure decreases, heart rate will increase and blood vessels will constrict to raise blood pressure

● Positive-Feedback Mechanisms: mechanism by which any deviation from an ideal normal value or set point is made GREATER (e.g. birth) ○ Further stimulate the correctional mechanism ● Terminology and the Body Plan ○ Anatomical Position: a person is standing erect, feet facing forward, arms hanging to the sides, and the palms facing forward ■ Supine: lying face upward in anatomical position ■ Prone: lying face downward in anatomical position ● Body Parts and Regions ○ Central Region: ■ Head ■ Neck ■ Trunk ● Thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis ○ Upper Limb: ■ Arm ■ Forearm ■ Wrist ■ Hand ○ Lower Limb: ■ Thigh ■ Leg

■ Ankle ■ Foot ● Abdomen is sometimes divided into 4 quadrants; it may also be divided into 9 regions ● Sectioned organs: ○ Longitudinal section ■ Cut along the long axis of an organ ○ Transverse section (Cross section) ■ Cut at a right angle to the long axis ○ Oblique section ■ Cut at angle other than right angle across the long axis

● Body Cavities ○ Thoracic Cavity ■ Surrounded by the rig cage ■ Divided into right and left parts by a median structure known as the mediastinum (contains the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, and other structures) ○ Abdominal Cavity ■ Bounded by abdominal muscles and contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys ■ Pelvic Cavity is a small space enclosed by the bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and internal reproductive organs ■ When the abdominal and pelvic cavities are considered together, they’re collectively known as the abdominopelvic cavity ● Serous Membranes ○ Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs of these cavities ■ Visceral serous membrane: inner wall, covers organs ■ Parietal serous membrane: outer wall, lines cavity walls ○ The space between the visceral and parietal serous membranes is the cavity (filled w/ a thin lubricated fluid/film) ■ Pericardial Cavity: surrounds the heart ■ Pleural Cavity: one surrounds each lung ■ Peritoneal Cavity: located within the abdominopelvic cavity ○ Serous membranes can become inflamed as a result of infection ■ Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium ■ Pleurisy: inflammation of the pleura ■ Peritonitis: inflammation of the peritoneum ○ Mesenteries ■ Consist of 2 layers of peritoneum fused together, connecting visceral to parietal

■ Anchor organs to the body wall ■ Provide pathway for nerves and blood ○ Retroperitoneal Organs ■ Kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, parts of the intestines, and urinary bladder ● DO NOT have mesenteries since they’re closely attached to the body wall already *Complete Ch. 1 Summary, Review/Comprehension, & Critical Thinking Questions*

Ch. 2: The Chemical Basis of Life ● Basic Chemistry ○ Chemistry: scientific discipline concerned with the atomic composition/structure of substances and the reactions they undergo ● Matter, Mass, and Weight ○ Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass ○ Mass: amount of matter in an object (unit: kg) ○ Weight: gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass ● Elements and Atoms ○ Element: simplest type of matter having unique chemical properties (96% of the body’s weight results from the elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen) ○ Atom: smallest particle of an element that has the chemical characteristics of that element ● Atomic Structure ○ Neutrons: no electrical charge ○ Protons: positive charge ○ Electrons: negative charge ○ Each atom is electrically neutral ○ Protons and Neutrons form the Nucleus at the center of the atom and electrons move around the nucleus ■ Nucleus accounts for 99.97% of atom’s mass, but a very small amount of its volume ○ Regions where electrons are most likely to be found can be represented by an electron cloud ○ Atomic Number: number of protons (the number of electrons) in each atom ○ Mass Number: # of protons + # of neutrons ● Electrons and Chemical Bonding ○ Occurs when outermost electrons are transferred or shared between atoms ○ Ionic Bonding ■ Ion: atom or atoms carrying an electrical charge due to loss/gain of 1+ electrons ■ Ionic Bond: chemical bond that results from the attraction between ions of opposite charge

● Covalent Bonding ○ Covalent Bond: chemical bond formed when 2 atoms share one or more pairs of electrons ■ Resulting combination of atoms is called a molecule ○ Electrons can be shared unequally in covalent bonds ■ Polar Covalent: unequal sharing of electrons between 2 atoms ● Lead to polar molecules ■ Nonpolar Covalent: equal sharing ●

Hydrogen Bond ○ Hydrogen Bond: weak attraction (not a chemical bond) between oppositely charged ends of two polar covalent molecules ○ Play an important role in determining shape of complex molecules

● Molecules and Compounds ○ Molecule is formed when 2+ atoms chemically combine to form a structure that behaves as an independent unit ○ Compound: substance containing 2+ different kinds of atoms that are chemically combined ○ Covalent compounds are molecules because the sharing of electrons results in distinct units ○ Ionic compounds are NOT molecules because they do not consist of distinct units ● Dissociation ○ When ionic compounds dissolve in water, their ions dissociate: separation of positive and negative ions when they dissolve in water and are surrounded by water molecules ○ Electrolytes: dissociated ions; positive and negative ions that conduct electricity in solution ● Chemical Reactions ○ Substances that enter a chemical rxn are Reactants ○ Substances that result from a chemical rxn are Products

● Synthesis Reaction ○ 2+ reactants combine to form a larger, more complex product

○ A + B → AB ○ E.g. Synthesis of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) ○ All of the synthesis rxns that occur in the body are collectively referred to as anabolism (REQUIRES ENERGY) ○ Growth, maintenance, and repair cannot take place without anabolic reactions ● Decomposition Reaction ○ Reactants are broken down into smaller, less complex products (opposite of synthesis rxns) ○ AB → A + B ○ E.g. breakdown of food molecules into basic building blocks, breakdown of ATP to ADP and phosphate group ○ All of the decomposition rxns that occur in the body are collectively called catabolism ○ Includes digestion of food molecules, breakdown of fat stores, breakdown of foreign matter ● All of the anabolic and catabolic reactions in the body are defined as metabolism ● Exchange Reaction ○ Combination of a decomposition rxn and a synthesis rxn ○ AB + CD → AC + BD ○ E.g. rxn between HCl and NaOH to form NaCl and H2O ● Reversible Reaction ○ Can proceed from reactants to products and/or from products to reactants ○ Equilibrium: rate of product formation = rate of reactant formation ex: CO2 + H2O ⇆ H+ + HCO3−

● (decreasing respiration rate causes blood CO2 to increase, causing an increase in H+ concentration)

● Energy: capacity to do work (move matter) ○ Potential Energy: stored energy (ex. Coiled spring) ■ Does NO work ○ Kinetic Energy: energy caused by the movement of an object ■ Does work! ● Chemical Energy: form of potential energy stored in chemical bonds ○ As similarly charged particles move closer to each other, their potential energy INCREASES

● If the products of a chemical reaction contain LESS potential energy than the reactants, energy is released! ○ A reaction that releases energy is the breakdown of ATP to ADP and a phosphate group ○ Phosphate group attaches to ADP molecule by a covalent bond which has potential energy ○ After breakdown of ATP, some energy is released as heat and some is available to cells for activities such as making new molecules or contracting muscles ● The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of the universe is constant ○ Energy is neither created nor destroyed ○ PE can be converted into KE however ● Mechanical Energy: energy resulting from the position or movement of objects ○ Eg. moving a limb, breathing, circulating blood, etc. ● Rate of Chemical Reactions ○ Reactants ■ Differ from one another in their ability to undergo chemical reactions ○ Concentration ■ The greater the concentration of the reactants, the greater the rate at which the chemical rxn will occur ● As concentration increases, the reacting molecules are more prone to come into contact w/ one another ○ Temperature ■ Molecular motion changes as environmental temperature changes

○ Catalysts ■ Increases the rate of a chemical reaction, w/o letting itself be depleted entirely ■ Enzymes are protein molecules that act as a catalyst ● Acids & Bases ○ Acid: proton donor ■ Any substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in water is an acid ○ Base: proton acceptor ● pH Scale (0-14) ○ Neutral Solution → equal number of H+ and OH- → 7.0 ○ Basic (Alkaline) Solution → more OH- → higher than 7.0 ○ Acidic Solution → more H+ → less than 7.0 ○ pH for human blood is 7.35 to 7.45 ■ If it drops below 7.35, acidosis results

● Nervous system becomes depressed ■ If it rises above 7.45, alkalosis results ● Nervous system becomes overexcitable ● Salts ○ Salt: compound consisting of a positive ion other than H+ and a negative ion other than OH○ Formed by the reaction of an acid and a base ● Buffers ○ Buffer: chemical that resists changes in pH when either an acid or a base is added to a solution containing the buffer ■ When an acid is added to a buffered soln., the buffer binds to the H+ which prevents the ions from decreasing the pH of soln. ● Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide ○ Oxygen ■ Nonpolar, diatomic molecule ■ 21% of atmosphere is Oxygen ○ Carbon Dioxide ■ Produced when food molecules like glucose are metabolized within the cells of the body ■ Can be toxic if accumulated ○ Water ■ Many important roles: ● Stabilizing body temperature ○ Water evaporation in the form of sweat results in significant heat loss from the body ● Protection ○ Water is a lubricant ■ Forms cushion around organs ● Facilitating chemical reactions ○ Many chemical rxns don’t occur unless reactants are dissolved in water ○ Water is also required in the digestion of food ● Transporting substances ○ Many substances dissolve in water and are transported as water moves ■ Blood transports nutrients, gases, and waste products within the body

● Organic Molecules (section 2.5) Molecule

Element

Building Blocks

Function

Examples

Carbohydrate

C, H, O

- Monosaccharides - Energy

- Monosaccharides can be used as energy sources. - Glycogen (a polysaccharide) is an energy-storage molecule.

Lipid

C, H, O (P, N in some)

- Glycerol

- Fats can be stored and broken down later for energy; per unit of weight, fats yield twice as much energy as carbohydrates. - Phospholipids and cholesterol are important components of cell membranes. - Steroid hormones regulate many physiological processes.

- Energy

- Fatty Acids (for fats)

- Structure

- Regulation Protein

C, H, O, N (S in most)

- Amino Acids

- Regulation

- Enzymes control rate of chemical reactions. Hormones regulate physiological processes.

- Structure

- Energy

- Contraction - Transport

- Collagen fibers form a structural framework in many parts of the body. - Proteins can be broken down for energy; per unit of weight, they yield same energy as carbohydrates. - Actin and myosin in muscle are responsible for muscle contraction. - Hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood. - Antibodies protect against microorganisms and other foreign substances.

- Protection Nucleic Acid

C, H, O, N, P

- Nucleotides

- Regulation - Heredity

- DNA directs activities of the cell. - Genes (pieces of DNA) that can be passed from one generation to the next. - RNA is involved in gene expression.

- Gene Expression ● Carbohydrates ○ Monosaccharides: smallest basic building block from which complex carbohydrates are constructed; simple sugars ■ Glucose (blood sugar) ■ Fructose (fruit sugar) ○ Disaccharides: two monosaccharides chemically bound together ■ Glucose and Fructose combine to form Sucrose (disaccharide table sugar) ○ Polysaccharides: many monosaccharides chemically bound together ■ Glycogen (animal starch) ● Polysaccharide of glucose ● When cells with glycogen need energy, glycogen is broken back down into individual glucose molecules which can be used for energy ■ Plant Starch ■ Cellulose

● Lipids ○ Soluble in nonpolar solvents (alcohol, acetone) ○ DON’T dissolve in water ○ Examples of lipids: fats, phospholipids, eicosanoids, steroids ■ Fats: greasy, soft-solid lipid found in animal tissues and many plants ● Composed of glycerol and fatty acids ● Glycerol: 3-carbon molecule w/ hydroxyl on each carbon ● Fatty Acids: chain of carbon atoms with a carboxyl group at end ● Triglycerides: most common type of fat; three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule) ○ A fatty acid is saturated if it contains ONLY single covalent bonds between carbon atoms ■ Ex. beef, pork, whole milk, cheese, butter, eggs, coconut oil, palm oil ○ A carbon chain is unsaturated if it has one or more double covalent bonds ■ Monounsaturated Fat: 1 double covalent bond ● Ex. olive/peanut oil ■ Polyunsaturated Fat: 2+ double covalent bonds ● Ex. safflower, sunflower, corn, fish oil ● Best type of fats in the diet, because they do not contribute to development of cardiovascular disease ■ Trans Fat: unsaturated fats that have been chemically altered by adding H atoms ● Makes fats more saturated (more solid and more stable) ○ Longer shelf-life ● Larger risk for cardiovascular disease ○ Phospholipids ■ Similar to triglycerides, except one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphorous-containing molecule

● Polar at the end closest to phosphate (Hydrophilic end → water loving) → the head ● Nonpolar at the other end (Hydrophobic end → water fearing) → the tail

○ Eicosanoids ■ Regulatory molecules ● Respond to tissues that are injured ■ Prostaglandins: a eicosanoid that regulates the secretion of some hormones, blood clotting, some reproductive functions, and other processes ○ Steroids ■ Ring-like structure ■ Cholesterol is an important steroid ● Synthesizes bile salts, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone ● Proteins ○ Amino Acids: building blocks of protein ■ Contain an amine group and a carboxyl group ■ 20 amino acids ● Humans can make 12 of them ● The remaining 8 are known as “essential amino acids” since they must be obtained through the diet ○ The ability of proteins to perform their function depends on their shape ■ If hydrogen bonds that maintain the shape are broken, protein becomes nonfunctional due to denaturation (change in shape) ● Can be caused by high temp. or changes in pH ○ Enzymes are protein catalysts that increase rate of rxn ■ Lower activation energy (energy necessary to start chemical rxn) ■ Lock-and-Key Model: ● Displays that the shape of an enzyme determines its purpose ○ Enzyme and particular reactant must fit together, so enzymes are very specific for the reactions they control ○ Each enzyme controls ONE type of reaction ○ Once rxn takes place, enzyme is released and can be used again ● Nucleic Acids ○ Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): type of nucleic acid containing the sugar deoxyribose; the genetic material of cells ■ Contains the information that determines the structure of prote...