Sociology midterm from flashcards PDF

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Sociologist: Comte- credited as the founder of sociology and coined the term sociology. 2) sought to social principles and apply them to social reform, 3)His research was less rigorous and more casual. Herbert Spencer-Disagreed with Comte about sociology guiding social reform because he believed societies go through natural evolution from lower to higher forms whereby the fittest survive. Social Darwinism-survival of the fittest is a perversion of Darwainian principle. Karl Marx_Did not identify as a sociologist. Introducted Conflict theory. Said class struggles were the engine of humanity. Introduced the Conflict therapy. Emile Durkeim- Sought to develop sociology and differentiate it from economics and history. He believed that human behavior must be examined by the social forces that affect people. Her study on suicide was ground breaking as it identified the influence of social integration, norms and values.

macrosociology and microsociology-Two levels of analysis, Macrosociology- the broad features of society, the microsociology- focuses on social interaction. Much of his work was inspired by Marx, though he claimed that superstructural elements like religion can be just as decisive as the base in regard to social change Stressed the importance of objective, value free sociology Stressed the use of Verstehen—people’s subjective interpretations and meanings: 1. Ethnomethodology and participant observation are two forms of research based on Verstehen Verstehen-What is the term for: people’s subjective interpretations and meanings what are two forms of research based on Verstehen? Ethnomethodology and participant observation What minority sociologists were not given the proper respect in the field due to the racism and sexism of the era? W. E. B. DuBois and Jane Addams were two such individuals, as well as Marianne Weber, Max Weber’s wife 3 primary theories—general explanations of how two or more aspects of society are related to one another—in the world of sociology: 1. Conflict theory interprets society at the macrosociological level, examining institutionalized/structured bases for conflict between different social groups. 2. Functionalism interprets society at the macrosociological level, examining latent and manifest functions—unintended and intended beneficial consequences—that create social cohesion and consensus. 3. Symbolic interactionism interprets society at the microsociological level, examining symbols—things to which we attach meaning—and how we define ourselves and others Conflict theory-theory interprets society at the macrosociological level, examining institutionalized/structured bases for conflict between different social groups Functionalism-interprets society at the macrosociological level, examining latent and manifest functions—unintended and intended beneficial consequences— that create social cohesion and consensus Symbolic interactionism interprets society at the microsociological level, examining symbols—things to which we attach meaning—and how we define ourselves and others Culture-is the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material artifacts that characterize a group and are passed from one generation to the next. symbolic culture-the material objects that distinguish a group and a group’s ways of thinking and doing, respectively Culture shock-disorientation when coming into contact with a fundamentally different culture, which upsets our taken-for-granted assumptions about Normalcy Ethnocentrism-Due to the extent to which we unconsciously internalize culture, we have a tendency to judge other societies by our own cultural standards, which is known as cultural relativism-the practice of judging a society by its own cultural standards symbols-something to which people attach meaning and that they communicate with one another. include gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways, and mores What type of society is the US? Pluralistic there are core values at the heart of US culture that are shared by the majority: What are they and who identifies them? Robin Williams identified 10 such values: 1. Achievement and success 2. Individualism 3. Hard work 4. Efficiency and practicality 5. Science and technology 6. Material comfort 7. Freedom 8. Democracy 9. Equality 10. Group superiority Values-are standards by which we define what is desirable/undesirable, good/bad, beautiful/ugly, etc. Norms-are expectations or rules of behavior that reflect and enforce values. Positive/negative sanctions-reflect approval/disapproval for following/breaking norms. Folkways-are norms that are not strictly enforced. Ex.: Idling on the left side of an escalator, passing people on the right, etc. Mores-are norms that are strictly enforced because they are thought essential to core values. Ex.: Murder, rape, theft, etc. Groups of people who focus on some activity or who occupy some small corner in life tend to develop specialized behaviors and values that distinguish its members from the dominant culture, creating a subculture (a world within a world) • US society contains thousands of subcultures, distinguished in relation to everything from ethnicity to occupation counterculture (ex. Hell's angels)- In some instances, however, a group’s values, norms, and related behaviors place its members in opposition to the broader culture. cultural lag-that material culture usually changes first, with nonmaterial culture lagging behind. Described william ogburn cultural diffusion-different cultures influence and adopt traits from one another in a process known as cultural diffusion Material. (ex. Indians fought Europeans while wearing their clothing)- Groups are more open to changes in material or non material culture? socialization-the process by which people learn the characteristics of their group Cultural leveling-the process by which cultures become similar to one another. This can strip cultures of their uniqueness. looking-glass self– (Cooley) refer to processes by which we develop the self by internalizing others’ reactions to us: 1. We imagine how we appear to those around us 2. We interpret others’ reactions 3. We develop a self-concept George Mead-He taught that we develop the self by learning to take the role of the other: 1. First, we learn to take the role of the significant other—those who significantly influence our lives 2. Later, we learn to take the role of the generalized other—the group as a whole

3 stages to developing the ability to take the role of the other: 1. Imitation—birth to 3 years old—mimicry of others 2. Play—3-6 years old—pretend to take roles 3. Team games—6+ years old—take multiple roles Jean Piaget-Who's stages of development conclude that children go through a 4-stage natural process as they develop their ability to reason, moving from the concrete to the abstract: 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years old): understanding is limited to direct contact 2. Preoperational stage (2-7 years old): ability to use symbols 3. Concrete operational stage (7-12 years old): ability to concretely reason 4. Formal operational stage (12+ years old): ability to abstractly reason Sigmund Freud-Attributed behavior primarily to inborn and subconscious motivations (which is at odds with the principles of sociology and its examination of external influences) Id-refers to inborn, basic drives for self-gratification Ego-refers to the balancing force between the id and the demands of society that suppress it and between the id and the Superego-refers to conscience—internalized norms and values The social construction of gender-the behaviors and attitudes that a society considers proper for its males and females—for example, has led to a narrow conception of what is expected of males and females: Where does gender socialization begin and where is it later reinforced? Begins in the family, is later reinforced by peer groups. Social Structure-refers to the framework or typical patterns of a group, consisting of the relationships between members and members/non-members. These patterns guide our behavior. Social Structure-refers to the framework or typical patterns of a group, consisting of the relationships between members and members/non-members. These patterns guide our behavior. Social class-refers to group membership on the basis of education, income, and occupational prestige Social status-refers to the position that one occupies in a social group. Status set-refers to all the statuses or positions that an individual occupies. Ascribed status-refers to a position one either inherits at birth or receives involuntarily later in life Achieved status-refers to a position that is earned, accomplished, or involves at least some effort or activity one’s part. Master status-refers to a status that cuts across the other statuses that an individual occupies Roles-refer to the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status. Unlike status, which one occupies. Group-refers to people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant. Social institution-refers to the organized, usual, or standard ways by which society meets its basic needs. Functionalist perspective: All societies establish social institutions in order to meet basic needs. Every society has 5 functional requisites. 1. Replacing members 2. Socializing new members 3. Producing and distributing goods 4. Preserving order 5. Providing a sense of purpose social cohesion/integration-the degree to which members of a groups or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds—and solidarity. Durkheim argued that smaller groups operate by what he called: mechanical solidarity (the unity that people feel as a result of performing the same or similar task) organic solidarity (the unity formed by interdependence that results from the division of labor)-complex division of labor—the splitting of a group’s or a society’s tasks into specialties—found in larger societies necessitate. Ferdinand Tönnies; also analyzed social cohesion, referring to the mechanical solidarity of “intimate communities” as Gemeinschaft and the organic solidarity of “impersonal association” as Gesellschaft. Role conflict-refers to conflict between roles because the expectations attached to one role are incompatible with the expectations attached to another. Role strain-refers to conflict within a single role. Ethnomethodology-is the study of how people use background assumptions—deeply embedded common understandings of how the world operates and of how people ought to act—to make sense out of life. Founded by Harold Garfinkel Comte-relied on armchair observations and common sense to study sociological phenomena Thomas theorem-theorem states that “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” What this means is that while there is an objective reality, it is our subjective, socially constructed interpretations of phenomena that influence our corresponding behavior. 7 basic research methods-surveys, participant observation, case studies, secondary analysis, documents, experiments, and/or unobtrusive measures. Sample-a group intended to represent the population from which it was drawn. random sample-a sample in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being included...