Sociology Year 1 Revision PDF

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Sociology Year 1 Families and Households Topic 1-Couples What is a family? What is a household? Family- Involves monogamous marriage between a man and woman and their children, who all live together. But this definition rules out other formats such as unmarried cohabiting couples, who others would see as family. Other definitions of family might be the idea that any arrangements that those involved see as family, is family. Household- A household is a person living alone or a group of people living together. The Domestic Division of Labour Parsons: -Expressive role- Women as the homemakers. -Instrumental role- Men as the breadwinners. Criticisms of Parsons: - Young and Willmott argue that men are doing more domestic work and wives are becoming wage earners. - Feminist sociologists argue that the division of labour is not natural and is there to benefit men only. Joint and Segregated Conjugal Roles. Segregated Conjugal Roles- Where a couples have separate roles. The male is the breadwinner and the female as the homemaker. Their leisure activities are also separate. Joint Conjugal Roles- Where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and then spend their leisure time together. The Symmetrical Family Young and Willmott take a ‘March of Progress’ view of the family. They see family life as gradually improving for all of its members, becoming more equal and democratic, arguing that there is a trend away from segregated conjugal roles and towards joint conjugal roles and the ‘symmetrical family’. By symmetrical family it means: -Women now go out to work -Men help with housework and childcare -Couples now spend leisure time together, instead of separate. Young and Willmott Study In their study of London, they found that symmetrical families were more common amongst young couples. They concluded that this increase in the Symmetrical nuclear family type was due to: -Changes in women’s position (married women go out to work) -Geographical mobility (More couples live away from the communities that they grew up in) -New technology (labour saving devices) -Higher standards of living.

The March of Progress view This is the view that there is greater equality between men and women, and the division of labour is more equal. Men are becoming more involved in housework and childcare and women are going out to work and earn wages. Feminist view of Housework Feminists reject the march of progress view. They say that little has changed, and men and women still remain unequal in society. Women still do most of the housework and this inequality is from the fact that family and society is male dominated. Feminist sociologist Oakley argues that the view of the symmetrical family is exaggerated, and women still do most of the work, while men take part in the pleasurable activities of childcare and playing with the children, while women are left to do the domestic work. Taking Responsibility for Children Boulton argues that although fathers help by taking part in specific tasks relating to childcare, it is usually the mother who takes responsibility for the child’s security and wellbeing. This view is supported by studies: - Ferri and Smith found that fathers took responsibility for childcare in fewer than 4% of families. - Dex and Ward found that although 78% of fathers had high involvement in their children and playing with them, but when it came to care for their sick child, only 1% of fathers were the main carers. - Braun, Vincent and Ball found that in 3 out of 70 families, the father was the main carer. Emotion work and the triple shift. Hochschild says that women also have the responsibility of emotion work, where they are responsible for managing family members emotions and feelings, therefore, they have to perform a triple shift of housework, paid work and emotion work. The Gender Division of Labour There are 2 explanations for the gender division of labour: 1) The cultural or ideological explanation of inequality This is the view that the division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms and values that shape the gender roles in our culture. Women therefore do domestic labour because that is what society expects them to do. 2) The material or economic explanation of inequality This is the view that women earn less than men generally, so it is economically rational that they do more housework and childcare while men spend more time earning from paid work. Evidence for Cultural explanation From this explanation, equality can only be achieved through change in gender norms. Gershuny- couples whose parents had a more equal relationship are more likely to share housework equally themselves. This suggests that parental role models and influence is important.

Evidence of Material Explanation From this view, if women go out to work and earn as much as men, then we should see change in the amount of domestic work and childcare that men take part in. Kan -found that for every £10,000 a year more a woman earns, she does two hours less housework per week. Resources and Decision Making in Households Money Management There are two main types of control over family income: -The allowance system, where men give their wives an allowance out of which they have to budget to meet the needs of their family, with the man keeping any surplus income for himself. -Pooling, where both partners have access to income and hold a joint responsibility for expenditure, such as a joint bank account. Decision-Making It is assumed that pooling means there is equality in decision making and control over resources, but the pooled income actually tends to be more controlled by men- Pahl and Vogler found that even where there was pooling, men usually. Made the major financial decisions. Studies found that: -Very important decisions, like those to do with finance, a change of job or moving to a new house, were usually taken by the man alone, or the couple jointly decided, by the man having the final say. -Important decisions such as those about children’s education or where to go on holiday were usually taken jointly. -Less important decisions like choice of home decor or children’s clothes and food was usually taken by the woman alone. Feminists argue that inequalities in decision making aren’t simply the result of inequalities in earnings. They argue that societies patriarchy and the idea of men being decision-makers is due to the cultural definition and how it is ingrained in society in men and women and instilled through gender role socialisation. However, if both partners keep their money separately, this doesn’t always mean inequality. Vogler et al found that cohabiting couples were less likely to pool their money, to maintain independence, yet, evidence suggests that cohabiting couples are more likely than married couples to share domestic work equally. The Personal Life Perspective argues that we need to understand the different meanings money can have within a relationship. For example, different couple types such as lesbians and gays were perfectly happy to allow their partner have control and make decisions in regard to money as they did not see control of money as meaning either equality or inequality in their relationship. Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is widespread so it can’t be the work of a few disturbed individuals. According to Women’s Aid Federation, domestic violence accounts for between a sixth and a quarter of all violent crimes. Domestic violence does not occur randomly, but it follows a particular social pattern, and these patterns have social causes. The most striking of these patterns is that it is usually men who commit acts of violence against women. For example, research found that women are more likely than men to have experienced intimate violence. 2 types of explanations for domestic violence: 1) The radical feminist explanation -This emphasizes that idea of patriarchy, cultural value and institutions. 2) The materialist explanation - This emphasizes economic factors such as lack of resources. Radical feminist explanation Radical feminists believe that society is founded on patriarchy and there are key divisions between men and women. Men play the role of the enemy; they are oppressors and exploiters of women. They also see family and marriage as key institutions in society that are the main source of women’s oppression. Materialist explanation These focus on factors that are economic such as inequalities in income and housing to explain why some groups are more at risk than others. For example, some sociologists see domestic violence as a result of stress on family members, and that stress being caused by social inequality.

Families and Households Topic 2- Childhood Childhood as a social construct Sociologists see childhood as a social construct, as something that is created and defined by society. The meaning of childhood, the children’s position in society is never fixed, but it changes between different times, places and cultures. The modern western notion of childhood In western society, childhood is seen as a special time in life and children are very different from adults. They are seen as physically and psychologically immature and not yet able to take responsibility for themselves and run their own lives. The most important thing about the western idea of childhood is its separateness. Childhood is seen as a clear and distinct life stage and children in society have a separate status than that of adults. Cross-cultural differences in childhood Children in simpler, non-industrial societies are generally treated differently from modern western societies, in 3 ways: 1) They take responsibility from an early age- In rural Bolivia, children are expected to take work responsibilities in the home and local community from the age of 5. 2) Less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority- In Tikopia, doing as you are told by a grown up is considered as a concession to be granted by a child, rather than a right to be expected by the adult. 3) Children’s sexual behaviour is often viewed differently- Among the Trobriand Islanders, sociologists found that adults took an attitude of ‘tolerance and amused interest’ towards children’s sexual explorations and activities. The globalisation of western childhood Sociologists argue that the western notions of childhood are being globalised by International humanitarian and welfare agencies who have exported and imposed on the rest of the world, western norms of what childhood should be. For example, campaigns against child labour reflect western views about what childhood should be, however, this might be the norms in those societies and cultures which are accepting of this. Historical differences in childhood The position of children differs over time. For example, in the Middle Ages, the idea of childhood did not exist. Children were not seen as having different needs as adults, once they had passed the stage of physical dependency. The law also didn’t differ between children and adults, in the Middle Ages. This is because they were seen as ‘min adults’ and so they were given the same punishments for crimes as adults, despite the severity of the punishment. The modern cult of childhood Elements of the modern western notion of childhood come from the Middle ages. This is because: - Schools which previously allowed adults to attend, started specialising in young children only.

-There was more of a distinction between adult and child clothing, so children were set apart from adults. -By the 18th century, handbooks on childrearing were more available which showed that child centred families were more common, and children were being given separate identities. Reasons for the changes in the position of children -Laws restricting child labour and excluding children from paid work. -The introduction of compulsory schooling -Laws and policies that apply specifically to children -Declining family size and lower infant mortality rates have encouraged parents to make a greater financial and emotional investment in their children. Industrialisation- the shift from agriculture to factory production is the reasons for many of the changes in the position of children. For example, modern industry needs an educated workforce, which requires compulsory schooling of the young. The Future of Childhood As childhood is socially constructed, we can expect it to change with time, as things begin to change even more in the future. The disappearance of childhood Neil Postman argues that childhood is disappearing at a ‘dazzling speed’. This is because There has become an increase in the trend of giving children and adults the same rights. Moreover, there are other things such as the disappearance of children’s unsupervised traditional games, children’s clothing becoming more and more similar to adult clothing and even children who are committing adult crimes such as murder. In Postman’s view, the cause of childhood first emerging and now disappearing is due to the rise and fall of print culture and then transition to television culture. The information hierarchy Postman argues that childhood emerged in the 19th Century. This is because printed word culture created a barrier between adults who were able to read, and children who weren’t. Adults were able to talk about adult things such as money, violence, sex, illness, death, and have the power and knowledge to keep these things secret from children. However, television has blurred the distinction between childhood and adulthood by destroying the information hierarchy. This is because TV doesn’t require any special skills to access it and it is easy for both adult and child to understand, so the boundary between adult and child is broken down as the innocence and ignorance of childhood is replaced by knowledge and cynicism. Childhood in postmodernity Postmodernist Jenks argues that childhood is not disappearing, but it is just changing. He argues that childhood is a creation of modern society (especially the 20th century) which was

concerned with futurity and childhood was seen as preparation for the child to evolve into an adult in the future. To achieve this transition to adult, the vulnerable child needs to be nurtured, hence why there was ‘child-centred’ families. However, Jenks argues that childhood is undergoing change once again as society moves from modernity to postmodernity. In modern society, adult relationships were more stable, but in postmodern society the pace of change has sped up, so relationships are more unstable, hence why there is an increase in divorce. Divorce results in feelings of insecurity and so relationship with their child becomes more important as a sense of stability and identity for the adult. Therefore, in postmodern society, adults become more preoccupied and involved with their children, constantly feeling the need to protect them which strengthens the view of children as vulnerable and in need of protection. Overall, childhood continues to be a separate status that is changing but not disappearing. Has the position of children improved? The March of Pogress view The March of progress view argues that the position of children in western societies has steadily improved and today is much better than it has ever been. Aries argues that children today are protected from harm through exploitation and child labour, they have better healthcare and education and have more rights than previous generations. The child-centred family March of progress view sociologists argue that the family is more ‘child centred’, so children are no longer to be ‘seen and not heard’ as they were in the Victorian times. Now children are seen as the focal point of the family. Moreover, now they aren’t only seen as the focal point of the family, but also of society as a whole, for example, leisure activities are designed specifically for children. The conflict view Conflict sociologists such as Marxists and Feminists argue that the march of progress view of modern childhood is based on false and idealised images that ignore important inequalities. They criticise the march of progress view for 2 reasons: - There are inequalities among children in terms of opportunities and risks as many children are uncared for properly and aren’t protected properly. - The inequalities between children and adults are greater than ever as children today experience greater control, oppressions and dependency, not greater care and protection. Inequalities among children Not all children share the same status or experiences as there are inequalities: -Children of different nationalities are likely to experience different childhoods and life chances. (905 of low birth weight babies are born in developing countries.) -There are also gender differences between children. (Boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads or go out after dark unaccompanied) (Girls do more domestic labourespecially in lone parent households)

-There are ethnic differences which are a reason for inequalities among children. (Asian parents were more likely to be strict towards their daughters- ideas of izzat (honour) could be a restriction). There are also class inequalities between children: -

Poor mothers more likely to have low birth weight babies, which is linked to delayed physical and intellectual development. Children of born in poor families are more likely to die in infancy or childhood or to suffer longstanding illnesses, to be shorter in height, to fall behind in school.

Inequalities between children and adults March of progress sociologists argue that ‘protection’ from paid work is not a benefit to children but a form of inequality which forcibly segregates children, making them more dependant, powerless and subject to adult control. Control over children’s space Children’s movements in Britain are highly regulated, for example, shops may display ‘no schoolchildren’ signs and children are told to play in some areas and forbidden to play in others. This control and surveillance contrasts with the independence of children in developing countries such as Sudan where children are allowed to roam freely both in the village and several kilometres outside. Control over children’s time Adults in modern society control children’s timings, including when they wake up, eat, go to school, come home, go out, play, watch television, and sleep. They also control the speed at which children ‘grow up’ as they decide whether a child is old enough to participate in a certain activity. This contrasts with Samoans who are told they are never too young to participate in a certain task. Control over children’s bodies Adults exercise control over children’s bodies. From how they sit, walk, run, what they wear, their hairstyles, when they are washed, fed, when their hands are held, patted, cuddled, and disciplined. Age patriarchy Gintis uses the term ‘age patriarchy’ to describe the inequalities between adults and children. Just as feminists use the term patriarchy to describe male domination in society, the term age patriarchy is used to describe adult domination in society. The ‘new sociology of childhood’ There is danger of seeing children as merely passive objects who have no part in making their own childhoods and seeing them as ‘socialisation projects’ for adults to mould, shape and develop. The ‘new sociology of childhood’ argues that we must take the perspective of the child and it sees children as active agents who play a major part in shaping and creating their own childhood.

Families and Households Topic 3 – Theories of the Family Functionalists Perspective of the Family Functionalists believe that society is based on value consensus, which is a set of shared norms and values, into which society socialises its members. Functionalists regard society to be made up of different parts that are all dependant on one another. This is called organic analogy- like the organs of a body function to make the body work, society’s sub-systems depend on each other to function properly. The family is seen as a very important sub-system as it plays an important role in society. Murdock- The 4 Functions of the family 1)Teaching Sexuality and Gender roles 2)Reproduction of the next generation 3)Primary Socialisation ...