Solid Study Guide - 5 Inheritance PDF

Preview

Summary

VERY USEFUL !!...

Description

What st hedi ffer encebet weenchar act erandt r ai t ? Ear l yst udyofi nher i t ancewor k edundert het woassumpt i onst hat Eac hpar entcont r i but esequal l yt ot heoffspr i ng,whi c hwass uppor t edby r ec i pr ocalcr os si ng E:Köl r eut er Thi sass umpt i onwascor r ect Her edi t ar ydet er mi nant sbl endi nt heoffspr i ngandonc et heydi dt heycoul dnev er besepar at ed( bl endi ngt heor y) . Mendel r ef ut edt hi swi t hhi scr os ses . Mendel ,anAus t r i anmonkpubl i shedanewt heor yofi nher i t ance,whi chwas mos t l yi gnor edasmos tbi ol ogi stoft he1860swer enotus edt ot hi nk i ngi nt he mat hemat i c al t er mshewor k edwi t h. Whenmei osi swasdi scov er edi n1900t hr eepl antgenet i c i s t sr eal i sedt hat c hr omosomesandmei osi spr ov i dedaphy s i calexpl anat i onf orMendel ’ sr esul t s . E:Mendelcont r ol l edt hepol l i nat i onandf er t i l i s at i onofgar denpeas,t huscoul dbe s ur eoft hepar ent spr oduci ngacer t ai noffspr i ng. Thephenot ypei st hephy s i calappear anceofanor gani sm,l i k espher i calseeds Thegenot y pei st hegenet i cmak eupofanor gani sm,l i k eSs Ac har act eri sanobs er v abl ephy si calf eat ur e,l i k et hecol orofaflower At r ai ti st hef or m ofac har act er ,l i k epur pl efl ower s Aher i t abl et r ai ti spas sedf r om par entt ooffspr i ng Agamet ei samat ur ehapl oi dmal eorf emal eger m cel l t hati sabl et ouni t ewi t h anot heroft heopposi t es exi nsex ualr epr oduct i ont of or m az y got e. At r uebr eedi ngt r ai ti sawel l defi nedt r ai tandt heonl yonepr esentf ormany gener at i ons E:Mendeli sol at edt r uebr eedi ngst r ai nsbyi nbr eedi ngands el ect i onandhe conc ent r at edons ev ent r ai t s . Mendel ’ scr os ses : Pol l enf r om onepar entwast r ansf er r edt ot hes t i gma,oft heot herpar ent ,wi t ht he t woconst i t ut i ngt hepar ent algener at i onP. Ther esul t i ngoffspr i ngi st hefi r s tfil i al Gener at i onF1 Thesel f pol l i nat i onofF1pl ant spr oducedt hesecondfil i algener at i onF2 I nMendel ’ sfi r stex per i menthe Cr ossedPpl ant sdi ffer i ngi nj ustonet r ai t ,t hus TheF1wer emonohybr i ds I namonohy br i dcr oss ,t hemonohybr i dswer eal l owedt osel f pol l i nat e,pr oduci ng t heF2gener at i on. Mendelr epeat edt hi sf oral l sev ent r ai t sandobs er v edt hat

Onet r ai tofeachpai rdi s appear edi nt heF1,butr eappear edi nt heF2,whi chi s t her ecessi v et r ai t( ME:wr i nkl ed) . Thet r ai tappear i ngi nt heF1i st hedomi nantt r ai t( ME:s pher i cal ) . Ther at i oofdomi nantt or ecessi v ei nt heF2was3: 1 Mendelpr opos edt hatt heher i t abl euni t swer edi sc r et epar t i c l es ,f or mi ngt he par t i c ul at et heor y ,hol di ngt hateac hpl anthast wopar t i c l esf oreac hchar act er ,one f r om eac hpar ent .The“ par t i cl e”nowi scal l edgene. Di pl oi dr ef er st ot het wocopi esofagenei nanor gani sm Hapl oi di st hes i ngl ecopyofagene,whi chi sgi v ent ot hegamet edur i nggamet e pr oduc t i on Mendelconc l udedt hateachgamet econt ai nsonl yonegene,butt hez y got e cont ai nst wo,becausei ti spr oduc edf r om t hef us i onoft wogamet es . Thet ot al i t yofal l genesi nanor gani sm i st hegenome. Al l el esar edi ffer entf or msoft hes amegene Tr uebr eedi ngi ndi v i dual shav et wocopi esoft hes ameal l ey ,t heyar e homoz y gousf ort heal l el e,l i k ess . Het er ozy gousi ndi v i dual shav et wodi ffer ental l el es ,l i k eSs Mendel ’ sfir stl aw,t hel awofsegr egat i onhol dst hatt woc opi esofagenesepar at e whenani ndi v i dual mak esgamet es . E:Whent heF1sel f pol l i nat es ,t her ear et hr eeway st ogett hedomi nantt r ai t( ME: s pher i cal ) ,butonl yonewayt ogett her eces si v e( ME:wr i nkl ed) ,r esul t i ngi nt he3: 1 r at i o Al l el ecombi nat i onscanbepr edi ct edwi t haPunnet ts quar e. Mendel ,i nhi snextexper i ment ,cr oss edpeast hatdi ffer edi nt owchar act er s ,seed s hapeandcol or . E:Thet r uebr eedi ngpar ent swer eSSYY( spher i cal ,y el l ow)ands s yy( wr i nkl ed, gr een) . Fort heF1( SsYy)al lar espher i cal andy el l ow. Fort hesubs equentdi hy br i dc r oss ,oft heF1i ndi vi dual s ,whi c hwer eal li dent i cal doubl ehet er oz y got es,Mendelwonder edi fi nt hegamet espr oducedbySsYy ,t he t r ai t swoul dbel i nk edorsegr egat ei ndependent l y . I fl i nk edt hegamet eswoul dbeSYors yandt heF2woul dhav et hr eet i mesmor e s pher i cal y el l ows eedst hanwr i nkl edgr eenones I fi ndependent ,t hegamet escoul dbeSY,s y ,Sy ,ors Yandt heF2woul dhav e ni nedi ffer entgenot y pes ,wi t hf ourphenot ypesi nar at i oof9: 3: 3: 1. Ther esul t si ndi cat edr ecombi nantphenot ypes,whi c har enewcombi nat i onsof t hepr evi ousones.

Mendel ’ ssecondl awofi ndependentass or t menthol dst hatal l el esofdi ffer ent genesassor ti ndependent l ydur i nggamet ef or mat i on Lat eri twasf oundoutt hatt hi sdoesn’ tal way sappl yt ogenesont hesame c hr omosome,butt hatchr omosomessegr egat ei ndependent l y . Howdoal l el esi nt er act ? Asi def r om r ecessi v eanddomi nantt r ai t s ,t her ear eal l el est hatar enei t her domi nantnorr ecess i v e,butt her eexi st sani ncompl et edomi nancet haty i el da het er ozy got ewi t hani nt er medi at ephenot ype. E:s napdr agons I ncodomi nanc et woal l el esatonel ocuspr oducephenot ypet hatar ebot hpr esent i nt hehet er ozy got e E:I nt heABO bl oodgr oups y st em t hr eeal l el esar epr esentatonel oc us. Agi v engenemayhav emor et hant woal l el es ,i nc r eas i ngt henumberofpos si bl e phenot ypeswi t hi ncr easi ngnumber sofal l el es . E:Thecoatcol ori nr abbi t s Humanpedi gr eescanshowMendel ’ sl aws Ashumanshav ef ewoffspr i ng,t hei rpedi gr eesdonots howt hec l earpr opor t i ons t hatMendel ’ speapl ant sdi d. Genet i csusepedi gr eest odet er mi newhet herar ar eal l el ei sdomi nantor r ecessi v e. TheMendel i anLawsofI nher i t ance Howdi dMendelcomeupwi t ht hecl as si calmodelofi nher i t anc e ? ◆ Mendels t udi edt hecommongar denpea,becauseofi t seas eofc ul t i v at i on, t hef easi bi l i t yofcont r ol l edpol l i nat i onandt heav ai l i bi l t yofv ar i et i esof cont r ast i ngt r ai t s .Hecont r ol l edpol l i nat i onandt husf er t i l i s at i onofhi spar ent s pl ant sbymanual l ymov i ngpol l enf r om onepl antt oanot her .I nt hi swayhe knewt hepar ent ageoft heoffspr i ngi nhi sexper i ment s .I nt hi swayhecame upwi t hcer t ai nher i t abl echar ac t er i st i cs . ◆ ◆ ◆

Aher i t abl et r ai ti sonet hati spass edf r om par entt ooffspr i ng Achar act eri sanobs er v abl ephy si calf eat ur e,suc hasflowercol or At r ai ti sapar t i cul arf or m ofachar act er ,suchaspur pl eflower sorwhi t e fl ower s.

◆

I ft r ai t sar et r uebr eedi ngt heobser v edt r ai t swast heonl yf or m pr es entf or manygener at i ons ,whi chwoul dmeant hatt het r ai tconsi st si fs el f pol l i nat ed. Mendel ’ suseoft r uebr eedi ngst r ai nsf orex per i ment alcr os seswases sent i al . Heper f or medt hec r ossesi nt hef ol l owi ngmanner

◆

◆

◆

◆ ◆ ◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆

◆ ◆

◆ ◆ ◆

Her emov edt heant her sf r om t heflower sofonepar ent als t r ai n,sot hey coul dn’ tsel f pol l i nat e.Thenhecol l ec t edpol l enf r om t heot herpar ent alst r ai n andpl acedi tont hest i gmasofflower soft hest r ai nwhos eant her shadbeen r emov ed.Thepl ant spr ovi di ngandr ecei vi ngt hepl anwer et hepar ent al gener at i on,P. Theseedsandr esul t i ngnewpl ant sc onst i t ut edt hefir stf i l i algener at i onF1. Mendelex ami nedeac hF1pl antt os eewhi c ht r ai tt heybor eandr ecor dedt he numberofF1pl ant sbear i ngeac ht r ai t . I nsomeexper i ment st heF1pl ant swer eal l owedt osel f pol l i nat eandpr oduce asecondfil i algener at i on,t heF2,whi chwasagai nex ami nedandr ecor ded. Thet er m hybr i dr ef er st ot heoffs pr i ngofcr os sesbet weenor gani smsdi ffer i ng i noneormor et r ai t s . Amonohybr i dcr ossr ef er st ot hec r ossi ngoft wot r uebr eedi ngPl i neages di ffer i ngi nj us tonet r ai t ,pr oduci ngmonohy br i dsi nt heF1.Subs equent l yt he monohybr i dsar ecr oss edagai n( ori nMendel ’ scas et heys el f pol l i nat ed) . Dur i ngmonohybr i dcr os si ngofs ev engener at i ons ,wi t hsomef eat ur i ng wr i nkl eds eedsandot her ss pher i calones,Mendelobser v edt hatt hewr i nk l ed s eedt r ai twasnev erex pr essedi nt heF1gener at i on,ev ent houghi t r eappear edi nt heF2gener at i on. Thi sl edhi mt oconc l udet hatt hes pher i c al seedt r ai twasdomi nantt ot he wr i nkl eds eedt r ai t ,whi chhecal l edr eces si v e.Thet r ai tt hatdi sappear si nt he F1gener at i onofat r uebr eedi ngcr ossi sal way st her ecessi vet r ai t . Heal soobser v edt hatt her at i ooft het wot r ai t si nt heF2wasal way st hesame wi t habout3: 1,t hati st hr eef our t hsoft heF2showedt hedomi nantt r ai tand onef our t hshowedt her ecess i v et r ai t ,r egar dl essoft hepar entcont r i but i ngt he pol l en. Mendel ’ smonohy br i dc r ossexper i ment ss howedt hati nher i t ancecannotbe t her es ul tofabl endi ngphenomenon,becausei fi twas,t heF1seedsshoul d hav eshowni nt er medi at er esul t s,l i k esl i ght l ywr i nkl ed. Mendelpr opos edt hatt heuni t sr es ponsi bl ef ort hei nher i t anceofspeci fict r ai t s ar epr es entasdi scr et epar t i cl est hatoccuri npai r sands egr egat edur i ngt he f or mat i onofgamet es. Accor di ngt ohi spar t i cul at et heor yt heuni t sofi nher i t ancer et ai nt hei ri nt egr i t y i nt hepr esenceofot heruni t s . Mendelconc l udedt hateachpeapl anthast owuni t s( par t i c l es)ofi nher i t ance f oreac hchar act er ,onef r om eac hpar ent .Di pl oi dr ef er st ot het wocopi esof eachher i t abl euni ti nanor gani sm,l i k eSS. Onl yoneoft hesepai r eduni t si sgi v ent ot hegamet e. Hapl oi dr ef er st ot hesi ngl es etofher i t abl euni t s ,l i k es . WHI CHcel l sar edi pl oi dandwhi chhapl oi d?

◆ ◆ ◆

Eac hgamet econt ai nsoneuni t ,t her es ul t i ngzygot econt ai nst wo,becaus ei t i spr oducedbyt hef us i onoft wogamet es . Theuni tofi nher i t ancei scal l edagene. Thet ot al i t yofal l t hegenesofanor gani sm i st hator gani sm’ sgenome.

Whatar eal l el esandhowdot heydet er mi net r ai t s ? ◆ Al l el esar et hedi ffer entf or msofagene( Sands ) . ⁃ I ndi v i dual st hatar et r uebr eedi ngc ont ai nt wocopi esoft hesameal l el e ( ME:ss ) ,whi chi scal l edhomozygousf ort hatal l el e( ME:s) .The i ndi v i dual i sahomoz ygot e. ⁃ ME:Al li ndi vi dual sofat r uebr eedi ngpopul at i onofpeaswi t h wr i nkl eds eedsmusthav et heal l el epai rss ,becaus ei fSwas pr esent ,someoft hepl ant swoul dpr oduces pher i c al seeds . ⁃ I ndi v i dual swi t ht wodi ffer ental l el esoft hegenei nques t i onar e het er ozygous( ME:Ss)andar ecal l edhet er ozygot es. ⁃ E:I nAABbcct hei ndi v i dual i shomozy gousf ort heAandCgene, bec ausei thast woeac hofAandc .I ti shet er ozy gousf ort heBgene bec ausei thasbot ht heBandbal l el es . ◆ Thephy si calappear anceofanor gani s mi si t sphenot ype,whi c hi st her es ul t oft hegenot ype,t hegenet i cconst i t ut i onoft heor gani s m showi ngt he phenot ype. ⁃ ME:Spher i calseedsandwr i nkl edseedsar et wophenot ypes,whi ch ar et heoft hr eegenot ypes .Thewr i nkl eds eedphenot y pei spr oduced byt hegenot ypess ,wher east hespher i cal seedphenot ypei spr oduced byei t heroft hegenot ypesSSorSs. Whati sMendel ’ sfi r s tl awandhowdoesi twor k ? ◆ Thel aw ofsegr egat i onhol dst hatwhenanyi ndi v i dual pr oducesgamet es , t het wocopi esofagenes epar at e,s ot hateac hgamet er ecei v esonl yone copy . ⁃ Thusev er yi ndi v i duali nt heoffs pr i ngf r om acr os sbet weent heP gener at i oni nher i t sonegenecopyf r om eachpar entandhast he ⁃

genot ypeSs . I nt hecaseoft heF2,hal foft hegamespr oducedbyt heF1hav et heS al l el eandt heot herhal ft hesal l el es.Si ncebot hSSandSspl ant s pr oducespher i cals eedswhi l esspl antpr oducewr i nkl edseeds ,i nt he t heF2t her ear et hr eeway st ogetaspher i calseededpl ant( SS, Ss ,or s S)r es ul t i ngi nt he3: 1r at i on

◆

ThePunnet tsquar ei sas i mpl egr i dwi t hal l possi bl emal egamet egenot y pes andal lposs i bl ef emal egamet egenot y pesandi tc anbeus edt opr edi ctt he al l el ecombi nat i onr esul t sf r om acr oss . ⁃ Anot hermet hodi spr obabi l i t ycal cul at i onswi t h ⁃ Thepr obabi l i t yofanSSi ndi vi dualpr oduc i ngt hegenot y peSi s 1 ⁃ Thepr obabi l i t yofanSsi ndi v i dualpr oduc i ngSi s0. 5 ⁃ Tocal cul at et hepr obabi l i t yofgenot ypesi noffs pr i ngofl at er gener at i onswemul t i pl y( andaddpr obabi l i t i esi fanev entc an happeni ndi ffer entway s)pr obabi l i t i es. ⁃ E:Thepr obabi l i t yofanF2havi ngSSwhent heF1ar eal l Ssi s0. 5×0. 5=0. 25 ⁃ E:Thepr obabi l i t yofanF2get t i nganSal l el ef r om t he s per m andansal l el ef r om t heeggi s0. 25.Addi t i onal l y t her ei sapr obabi l i t yof0. 25t heF2wi l lgetansf r om t he s per m andanSf r om t heegg,r esul t i ngi nt hes ameSs

◆

◆ ◆

genot ype,t hust hepr obabi l i t yt hatt heF2wi l lbe het er ozy got ei s0. 25+0. 25=0. 5 ⁃ Thi sex pl ai nst he1: 2: 1r at i onofgenot ypeswi t ht he3: 1 r at i oofphenot ypes. Agenei sasequenceofDNAt hatr es i desatapar t i c ul arsi t eona c hr omosome,cal l edal ocus.Theyar eex pr es sedi nt hephenot y pemos t l yas pr ot ei nswi t hpar t i cul arf unct i ons ,suc hasenzymes. ⁃ Soi nmanycas esadomi nantgenecanbet houghtofasar egi onof DNAt hati sex pr es sedasaf unct i onalpr ot ei n ⁃ Ther eces si v egenet ypi calex pr essesanonf unct i onalpr ot ei n,orone whosef unct i oni sov er s hadowedbyt hedomi nantpr ot ei n. Thedi ffer ental l el esofagenesegr egat east hec hr omosomessepar at edur i ng mei osi s1. At estcr ossi sawayoffi ndi ngoutwet herani ndi v i dualshowi ngadomi nant t r ai ti shomoz y gousorhet er ozy gous ,byc r ossi ngt hei ndi v i duali nques t i on wi t hani ndi v i dualt hati sknownt obehomoz y gousf ort her ecess i v et r ai t . ⁃ I ft hei ndi vi dualt es t edi shomoz y gousdomi nant( SS)al l offspr i ngwi l l beSsandshowt hedomi nantt r ai t( ME:s pher i cal ) ⁃ I ft hei ndi vi dualt es t edi shet er ozy gous( Ss )hal foft heoffs pr i ngwi l lbe het er ozy gouswi t ht hedomi nantt r ai t( Ss ) ,butt heot herhal fwi l lbe homoz y gousf orandshowt her ecess i v et r ai t( ss ) .

Whati sMendel ’ ss econdl awandhowdoesi twor k ?

◆

◆

Thel aw ofi ndependentassor t menthol dst hatal l i esofdi ffer entgenes as sor ti ndependent l yofoneanot herdur i nggamet ef or mat i on,t hati st he s egr egat i onofgeneAal l el esi si ndependentoft hes egr egat i onofgeneB al l el es. ⁃ Thi sl awappl i est ogenesl ocat edonsepar at ec hr omosomes,butnott o t hosel ocat ednearoneanot heront hesamec hr omosome. Anor gani sm t hati shet er oz y gousf ort wogenes( Ss Yy)( ME:S-spher i cal ,swr i nkl ed,Y-y el l ow,y-gr een) ,wi t ht heSandYal l el escomi ngf r om t he mot herandt hesandyal l el escomi ngf or mt hef at herwi l ly i el df ourdi ffer ent phenot ypesi nt heF2i nar at i oof9: 3: 3: 1,wi t ht hepar ent alt r ai t soccur r i ngi n newc ombi nat i ons .Suchnewc ombi nat i onsar ecal l edr ecombi nant phenot ypes. ⁃ Thesegr egat i onofSf r om si s ni ndependentf r om t hes egr egat i onofY f r om y ,r es ul t i ngi nf ourki ndsofgamet esi nF1( SY,Sy ,s Y,s y) ,whi c h pr oduceF2wi t h9di ffer entgenot ypes . ⁃ ME:TheF2pr ogenycoul dhav eanyoft het hr eepos si bl e

⁃

genot ypesf orshape( SS, Ss ,ss )andanyoft het hr eeposs i bl e genot ypesofc ol or( YY, Yy ,yy )andt hecombi nedni negenot y pes s houl dpr oducef ourphenot ypes( s pher i caly el l ow,s pher i cal gr een,wr i nk l edy el l ow,wr i nkl edgr een) .I nar at i oof9: 3: 3: 1. Mendelf oundt hi soutbymeansofadi hybr i dcr oss,whi chi sa c r ossbet weeni ndi vi dual st hatar ei dent i caldoubl e het er ozy got es .

Whatar epedi gr eesandhowcant heybeus edt oc al c ul at egenepr obabi l i t i es ? ◆ Pedi gr eesar ef ami l yt r eest hats howt heoccur r enceofphenot ypes( and al l el es)i nsev er algener at i onsorr el at edi ndi vi dual s . ⁃ Humanpedi gr eesdonotshowt hec l earpr opor t i onsofoffspr i ng phenot ypest hatMendelsawi npl ant sbecauset heyhav es ol i t t l e offs pr i ng,butMendel ’ sl awscans t i l lbeobser v ed. ⁃ Thek eyf eat ur est ol ookf ori nahumanpedi gr eet odet er mi newet hera par t i c ul aral l el ecausesanabnor malphenot ype( di sease)i sdomi nant orr ecessi v ear e. ⁃ Ev er yper sonhasanaffect edper s on ⁃ Abouthal foft heoffs pr i ngofanaffect edpar ental soar eaffect ed ⁃ Thephenot ypeoccur sequal l yi nbot hs ex es . ⁃ Affect edpeopl eusual l yhav et wopar ent swhoar enotaffect ed, meani ngt hatt hedi s eas eski psagener at i on ⁃ I naffect edf ami l i esabout0. 25% oft hechi l dr enofunaffect ed par ent sar eaffect ed

◆

Mendel ’ sl awshol ds t i l lt oday ,butt her ear ecompl i cat i onshewasunawar eof .

Howdoal l el esi nt er ac t ? ◆ Genesar esubj ectt omut at i ons,whi char er ar e,st abl eandi nher i t edchanges i nt hegenet i cmat er i al ,t husal l el escanmut at ei nt odi ffer ental l el es . ⁃ Onepar t i c ul aral l el eofagenei st hewi l dt ype,whi chi st heal l el est hat i spr es enti nmosti ndi v i dual si nnat ur e. ⁃ Angenet i cl ocuswi t hawi l dt ypeal l el et hati spr esentl es st han

◆

99% oft het i me( t her es toft heal l el esbei ngmut ant )i s pol ymor phi c. Becaus eofr andom mut at i onsmor et hant woal l el esofagi v engenemayex i st i nagr oupofi ndi vi dual s .Suchmul t i pl eal l el esof t ens howahi er ar chyof domi nanceandt heyi ncr eas et henumberofpossi bl ephenot ypes . ⁃ I nt hepai r sofal l el esst udi edbyMendel ,domi nancei scompl et ewhen ani ndi vi duali shet er ozy gous,t hati sanSsi ndi vi dualal way sex pr esses t heSphenot y pe.Butmanygeneshav eal l el est hatar enotdomi nantor

⁃

⁃

r ecessi v et ooneanot herandshowi nst eadani nt er medi at e phenot ypeofahet er ozy got ei sabl endoft hepar entphenot y pes . Whenhet er oz y got esshowaphenot ypet hati si nt er medi at ebet ween t hoseoft het wohomoz y got es ,t hegenei sgov er nedbyi ncompl et e domi nance,t hati snei t heroft het woal l el esi sdomi nant . ⁃ E:r r( whi t e)andRR( r ed)fl owerc r ossi ngr esul t si nan i nt er medi at eRrphenot ype( pi nk)becaus et heal l el ef ort her ed fl oweri si ncompl et el ydomi nantov ert heal l el ef ort hewhi t e fl ower . Somet i mest het woal l el esatal oc uspr oducet wodi ffer entphenot ypes t hatbot happeari nhet er ozy got es ,whi c hi sk nownascodomi nance. ⁃ E:i nt heABO bl oodgr oups y s t em ofhumans ,onegenet i cl oc us i scal l edt heABO l oc uswi t ht hr eeal l el esI A,I B,I Q,whi ch encodet her edbl oodcel lsur f acegl y copr ot ei ndes i gnat edA,B andO.Peopl ei nher i toneal l el ef r om eac hpar entandt husmay hav ecombi nat i onsoft heseal l el es( I AI O,I AI A,I AI B) . ⁃ I nacodomi nants y s t em al lal l el esar eex pr ess edi na het er ozy got e,t huspeopl ewi t hI AI Bex pr essbot hI AandI B al l el esont hei rr edbl oodcel l sur f aces. ⁃ I nbl oodt r ans f usi onsi nc ompat i bl et r ans f usi onsr esul ti n t hef or mat i onofc l umpsbecauseoft hesegenet i c s y st ems( TheAandBgl y copr ot ei nscanactasant i gens , t hati sant i bodi esr eactwi t ht henons el fgl y copr ot ei ns ,i f t heper sonr ecei vi ngbl ooddoesn’ tcar r yt heI AorI B

◆

al l el es) ,t husonl ycer t ai ncombi nat i onsofbl oodand s er um ar ecompat i bl e. As i ngl eal l el ecani nfl uencemor et hanonephenot ypeandwhenaal l el ehas mor et hanonephenot ypi ceffecti ti spl ei ot r opi c,asi nt hecol or at i onpat t er ns ofSi amesec at ’ sey es,whi chi sdet er mi nedbyt hes ameal l el e.

Howdogenesi nt er act ? ◆ I nepi st asi sonegeneaffect st heex pr ess i onofanot her ◆ ◆

◆

Envi r onment al condi t i onscanaffectt heex pr es si onofagenot y pe Penet r ancei st hepr opor t i onofi ndi vi dual si nagr oupwi t hagi v engenot ype t hatshowt heex pect edphenot ype ⁃ Expr essi vi t y...