Study Guide Exam 4 PDF

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Psych 100 - Wede Study Guide for Exam 4 Exam Date: during class on Wednesday, November 18 th Lecture 16 and Chapter 7 (Section 7.4): Cognitive and Observational Learning  Cognitive Learning Theory: explains how internal and external factors influence an individual's mental processes to supplement learning.  Latent Learning: learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned.  Insight Learning: sudden perception of relationships/patterns between parts of a problem.  Learned Helplessness: failure to escape from a situation (or put effort in) because of previous failures.  Observational Learning 4 Elements 1. Attention – must notice it 2. Memory – must remember it 3. Imitation – must be able to do it 4. Motivation – must have a desire to do it  Bandura’s Experiments o Bobo Doll Experiment o Children imitate what they see  Mirror Neurons: a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another o Activate during observational learning o Ex. football, movies, video games  Biological Preparedness: the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses. o Ex. explains why certain types of phobias tend to form more easily Lectures 17-19 and Chapter 8: Intro to Psychological Disorders, Anxiety & Mood, Dissociative, Personality, and Schizophrenia  Diagnosis of a Psychological Disorder o Mental health workers view disorders as significant disturbances in cognition, emotion regulation, and behavior o Deviant – departing from social norms, ex. homosexuality back in the day o Distressful o Dysfunctional  Biological Model o People started thinking that disorders were a sickness of the mind in the 1800s o Concept that diseases can be diagnosed, treated, and cured  Psychological Models o Model of Abnormality – Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive  Biopsychosocial Approach o Assumes that biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders

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Worldwide Disorders o Depression and schizophrenia o Culture-Specific: eating disorders like anorexia and bulimia (Western) DSM o Classified system designed to describe disorders o DSM-V is the most recent edition o Describes 250+ psychological disorders with highly specific definitions and symptoms o Diagnosis by different psychologists and professionals can be more reliable and standardized. Labeling Psychological Disorders o Causes us to view people differently o Rosenhan (1973) experimented with hearing voices and getting institutionalized Anxiety Disorders o Generalized Anxiety Disorder  Persistent and uncontrollable tenseness and apprehension (for 6 months or more)  Autonomic arousal  Inability to identify or avoid cause of feelings o Panic Disorder  Minutes-long episodes of intense dread – panic attacks  Feelings of terror, chest pains, choking, other sensations  Component of both general anxiety and panic (more anxiety in panic disorder) o Phobias  Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that disrupts behavior o OCD  Persistence of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urge to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions) that cause distress o PTSD  difficulty recovering after experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event Causes of Anxiety Disorders o Psychodynamic o Behavioral  reinforcement o Cognitive  irrational thinking o Biological  chemical imbalances Mood Disorders: emotions that are extreme and abnormal o Major Depressive Disorder  Most common reason people seek professional help  Often response to past or current loss (anxiety is typically a response to current or future event)  Normal reaction  maladaptive reaction  Slows us down, defusing aggression and restraining risktaking

Lethargy and tiredness, feelings of worthlessness, loss of interest in family, friends, and activities o Bipolar Disorder (Manic-Depressive Disorder)  Alternate between depression and mania  Decreased serotonin with depression: gloomy, withdrawn, slow, inability to decide, tired  Increased norepinephrine for mania: elation, euphoria, desire for action, hyperactive, multiple ideas o Biological Perspective  Genetic influences – mood disorders run in families Depression o Decreased norepinephrine and serotonin – drugs reduce norepinephrine o PET scans show that brain energy consumption rises and falls with manic and depressive episodes o Depression arises partly from self-defeating beliefs and negative explanatory styles  Negative viewpoints  Unavoidable painful events happen  Sometimes we can get through it, other times we can’t o Explanatory Styles  Stable / temporary  Global / specific  Internal / external Depression Cycle 1. Stressful Experiences 2. Negative Explanatory Style 3. Depressed Mood 4. Cognitive and Behavioral Changes Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) o Conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and actions o Person exhibits 2+ distinct/alternating personalities (multiple personality) o Critics say that the diagnosis of DID increased in the late 20 th century; from 2 cases a decade to 20,000 cases in the 80s Personality Disorders o Characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning o Usually without anxiety, depression, delusions o Antisocial Personality Disorder  disregard for other people  lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even towards family  lower levels of cortisol (the stress hormone) to stressful situations o Narcissistic Personality Disorder  characterized by a long-term pattern of exaggerated feelings of self-importance, an excessive craving for admiration, and struggles with empathy 

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Borderline Personality Disorder  characterized by unstable moods, behavior, and relationships Schizophrenia o Nearly 1 in 1000 people suffer from it o Symptoms  Disorganized and delusional thinking; fragmented, bizarre combined with distorted beliefs, selective attention failure  Disturbed perceptions: hallucinations (auditory, visual, somatosensory, olfactory, gustatory)  Inappropriate emotions and actions: apathy or laughing, rub an arm or rock a chair or remain motionless for hours (catatonia) o Negative Symptoms: presence of inappropriate behaviors, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, delusions, inappropriate emotions o Positive Symptoms: absence of appropriate behaviors, toneless voice, expressionless face, mute, rigid body o Biological factors  Dopamine overactivity  Schizophrenia patients express higher levels (up to 6x) of dopamine D4 receptors in the brain  Drugs that reduce dopamine levels lessen positive symptoms but have less of an effect on negative symptoms o Genetic factors  likelihood of individuals suffering from schizophrenia is 50% if their identical twin has the disease  Viral infections and pregnancy connection (severe flu epidemics lead to more cases) o Psychological factors  Psychological and environmental factors can trigger schizophrenia if the individual is genetically predisposed: stress-vulnerability model o

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Lectures 20-21 and Chapter 9: Psychological and Biomedical Therapies  Therapies o Insight Therapy: root cause / insight into patient’s head o Action Therapy: behavior  Methods of Psychoanalysis o Freudian – psychological problems originate from repressed impulses and conflicts in childhood o Aim to bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness o Free Association: patient says aloud anything that comes to mind at the moment; leads to resistance o Dream Interpretation o Criticisms  Hard to refute; cannot be proven or disproven  Takes a long time and very expensive  Humanistic Therapy

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – unconditional positive regard Aims to boost self-fulfillment by helping people grow in selfawareness and self-acceptance o Focus on the present/future, conscious thoughts o Works best with intelligent, highly verbal persons Client-Centered Therapy o Active Listening Behavior Therapies o Applies learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviors, action therapy o Classical Conditioning  Counterconditioning: conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors  Exposure Therapy: exposes patients to things they fear or avoid; extinction of conditioned fear response  Systematic Desensitization: cannot be simultaneously relaxed and anxious; associates pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli  Aversive Conditioning: associating unpleasant state with unwanted behavior (alcohol and nausea) o Operant Conditioning  Desired behavior is rewarded, and undesired behaviors are either not rewarded or are punished  Token Economy: earn tokens for certain behaviors (traded for food, candy, etc.) o Exposure Therapy  Exposes patients to things they fear or avoid  Extinction of conditioned fear response o Evaluation  Work very well for specific behaviors (overeating, drug addictions, phobias)  Don’t work as well with more serious disorders Cognitive Therapy o Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting o Based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions o Depression  Aaron Beck trained depressed patients to daily record positive events and relate how they contributed to these events o Evaluation  Relatively inexpensive  Works well with depression, stress, anxiety  Potential bias from therapist Psychotherapy o Does the patient sense improvement? o Does the therapist feel the patient has improved? o How do friends and family feel about the patient’s improvement? o Problems with Evaluating o o

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What do you measure – client, clinician, family perspective? Clients generally overestimate its effectiveness – they come to therapy in crisis and crisis can easily subside over time o Meta-analyses suggest that patients benefit from therapy (realistically combining results from many studies) Psychotherapy Commonalities 1. Therapeutic Alliance: therapist/client relationship 2. Protected setting 3. Hope: even if just a placebo Placebo Effect o By believing something to work, it does o Expectations strongly influence behavior o Double-Blind procedure Drugs o Antipsychotics  Classical Antipsychotic: reduce positive symptoms of schizophrenia (agitation, delusions, hallucination)  Atypical Antipsychotic: reduce negative symptoms of schizophrenia (apathy, concentration difficulties, difficulty interacting o Antianxiety Drugs  Xanax and Ativan  Depress the Central Nervous System  Reduce anxiety tension  Elevate levels of Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter o Antidepressants  Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil  Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)  Improve mood by inhibiting reuptake of serotonin o Antimanic Drugs  Lithium carbonate (common salt) has been used to stabilize manic episodes in bipolar disorders  Moderates levels of norepinephrine and glutamate neurotransmitters  Stabilizes mood Brain Stimulation Therapy o Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)  Severely depressed patients who don’t respond to drugs  Patient is anesthetized and given muscle relaxant  Affects prefrontal cortex o Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS)  Magnetic coil is placed over prefrontal regions of the brain  Minimal side effects Psychosurgery o Prefrontal Lobotomy  Sever connections between the frontal lobe and limbic system  Used as a last resort / irreversible  

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Removal of brain tissue changes the mind

From Previous Exams  3 Research Designs o Correlational  Measure of relationship between 2 variables (positive / negative)  Correlation doesn’t equal causation  Illusory (stereotypes, superstitions) o Experimental  Backbone of research  Isolate causes and effects  Manipulate variable of interest while controlling everything else  Random assignment o Descriptive  Case Studies  Lab Observations  Naturalistic Observation  Survey (random sampling)  Representative sample is key  Neurons o Lock and key analogy for neurotransmitters and receptors o When a receptor accepts a neurotransmitter, it starts a chain reaction  Cortex o Parietal: sensory, receives information from skin surface and sense organs o Frontal: motor, controls voluntary movements o Occipital: vision o Temporal: audio  Memory Processes o Encoding: events we notice are encoded in working memory, further processing and rehearsing can encode information into long term memory o Storage: stored in sensory memory (pattern recognition, large but not unlimited, iconic is shorter than echoic), working/short term memory (encoding visual and auditory, capacity: magic number 7, expand by chunking), or long term memory (unlimited, emotions cue) o Retrieval: getting information out  Reconstruction of Memory o Misinformation Effect o Source Amnesia  Schema o Mental concept that organizes information o Assimilation: interpret in terms of existing schemas o Accommodation: adapt our schemas to fit new experiences  Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 yo)  Senses, gain object permanence o Preoperational Stage (2 – 6/7)  Learning language but not logic  Lacks conservation  Egocentric  Start to form theory of mind o Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11)  Think logically  Understand conservation  Math transformations o Formal Operational Stage (11+)  Can think abstractly Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning o

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