Summary Abnormal Child Psychology - chapters 1-4 PDF

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Psyc 412: Chapter 1 – Introduction to Normal and Abnormal Behavior in Children and Adolescents Research Studies in Abnormal Child Psychology Seek to Address: -defining what is normal and abnormal -identifying causes and correlates -making predictions -developing and evaluating methods for treatment and/or prevention Historical Information: -Children in the old days were seen as servants -If handicapped or disabled, they were seen as social embarrassments and often were put to death -17th and 18th century: abnormal children were seen as “possessed”; no antibiotics; parental indifference and neglect -John Locke provided the first step for change in the 17th century The welfare of children rose with 2 influences: 1) Advances in general medicine and new models and treatments 2) The growing influence of philosophies of Locke leading to the view that children need moral guidance and support Masturbatory Insanity -a form of “mental illness” in the old days that explained that children and adolescents who masturbate are being harmful to their health and that it is sinful -only in the 20th century was this term dispelled Psychoanalytic Theory: -Freud -Individuals have predispositions that strongly affect development, inborn drives, etc. -Experiences play a large role in psychopathology Nosologies: -the efforts to classify psychiatric disorders into descriptive categories Behaviorism: -Pavlov, Watson, etc. -Classical conditioning -Ex: Little Albert experiment (fear conditioning) Psychological Disorder -Defined as a pattern of behavioral, cognitive, emotional or physical symptoms shown by an individual

A psychological disorder is associated with 1 or more of the following 3 features: 1) the person shows some degree or distress, such as fear or sadness 2) the person’s behavior indicates some degree of disability or impairment that limits activity in multiple areas 3) the person’s distress and disability increase the risk for further suffering or harm, etc. Labels -Labels describe behavior, not people Stigma -a negative stereotype that refers to a cluster of negative attitudes and beliefs that motivates fear, rejection, avoidance and discrimination with respect to people with mental illnesses Competence -the ability to successfully adapt in the environment Developmental Tasks -Include broad domains of competence such as conduct and academic achievement -Tells us how children typically progress within each domain as they grow Developmental Pathway -Refers to the sequence and timing of particular behaviors and possible relationships between behaviors over time Multifinality -the concept that various outcomes may stem from similar beginnings -i.e. similar early experiences lead to different outcomes -ex: early childhood maltreatment can lead to many possible outcomes like eating disorders, mood disorders, conduct disorders or normal adjustments Equifinality -the concept that similar outcomes stem from different early experiences -i.e. different factors lead to a similar outcome -ex: genetic pattern, familial characteristics and environmental features all lead to conduct disorder Risk Factor -a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur Protective Factor -a personal or situational variable that reduces the chances for a child to develop a disorder

Resilience -not a universal, categorical or fixed attribute of the child -it varies according to the type of stress, its context and similar factors -ex: self-confidence, faith, family help, opportunities, etc. Statistics of Mental Health -By 2020, behavioral health disorders will surpass all physical diseases as a major cause of disability throughout the world -Many, if not most, lifetime psychiatric disorders will first appear in childhood or adolescence -One child in eight has a mental health problem that significantly impairs functioning -3 out of 5 21-year-olds will meet criteria for a psychiatric disorder -Fewer than 10% of children with mental health problems receive proper services -Childhood poverty affects 1 in 4 in the USA and 1 in 7 in Canada Sex Differences and Their Prevalence -Boys: hyperactivity, autism, childhood disruptive behavior disorders, learning and communication disorders -Girls: anxiety disorders, adolescent depression and eating disorders Internalizing Problems -anxiety, depression, somatic symptoms and withdrawn behavior -more prevalent in girls Externalizing Problems -acting-out behavior, aggression and delinquent behavior -more prevalent in boys, but decreases over time Racial Minorities -Tend to have a lower SES (socioeconomic status) -Bear a higher burden of disability from mental disorders

PSYC 412 – Chapter 2: Theories and Causes Things to consider when diagnosing someone: 1) biological influences 2) emotional influences 3) behavioral and cognitive influences 4) family, cultural and ethnic influences **factors in each one of these areas impact and interact with the other areas Acculturation -problems in adapting to the receiving culture -i.e. a Hispanic boy adapting to American culture Biculturalism -the child or adolescent learns to adapt to both their heritage and their receiving culture Theory -a language of science that allows us to assemble and communicate existing knowledge more comprehensively -permits us to make educated guesses and predictions about behavior based on samples of knowledge Etiology -the study of the causes of childhood disorders -considers how biological, psychological, and environmental processes interact to produce the outcomes that are observed over time -etiology is complex and can have multiple, interactive causes Developmental Psychopathology -an approach to describing and studying disorders of childhood, adolescence, and beyond in a manner that emphasizes the importance of developmental processes and tasks -i.e. looking at the child and adolescent as he or she grows up and describes and studies their disorders -in order to study abnormal, maladaptive behavior, one must compare it to what is normative One-Dimensional Causal Model -illustrates that only one thing, one single underlying cause, is causing the disorder -not helpful and too simple

3 Approaches to Abnormal Child Psychology 1) abnormal development is multiply determined -meaning that there could be many interactions and developmental pathways that can contribute to a particular disorder 2) child and environment are interdependent -interdependent: child and environment are interdependent; i.e. they influence each other -transaction: the dynamic interaction between a child and its environment 3) abnormal development involves continuities and discontinuities -continuity: developmental changes are gradual and quantitative (measured numerically, ex: height and weight). Can be predicted, ex: a child continuously hits other people. -discontinuity: developmental changes are abrupt and qualitative (cannot be measured numerically, ex: mood and expression). Not many predictors, ex: eating disorders can come and go. Approximate age (years)

Normal achievements

Common behavior problems

Clinical disorders

0-2

Eating, sleeping, attachment

Stubbornness, temper, toileting difficulties

Mental retardation, feeding disorders, autistic disorder

2-5

Language, toileting, self-care skills, self-control, peer relationships

Arguing, demanding attention, disobedience, fears, overactivity, resisting bedtime

Speech and language disorders, problems stemming from child abuse and neglect, some anxiety disorders, such as phobias

6- 11

Academic skills and rules, rulegoverned games, simple responsibilities

Arguing, inability to ADHD, learning disorders, concentrate, selfschool refusal behavior, conduct consciousness, showing off problems

12-20

Relations with opposite sex, personal identity, separation from family, increased responsibilities

Arguing, bragging, anger outbursts, risk-taking

Anorexia, bulimia, delinquency, suicide attempts, drug and alcohol abuse, schizophrenia, depression

Developmental Cascades -the process by which a child’s previous interactions and experiences may spread across other systems and alter his or her course of development, like a chain reaction Biological explanations: -Genetic mutations, neuroanatomy, neurobioloigical mechanisms Psychological explanations: -Insecure attachments, cognitive distortions or maladaptive reinforcement and learning histories

Adaptational Failure -the failure to master or progress in accomplishing developmental milestones -in other words, children with psychological disorders differ from children their own age in some aspect of normal development Organization of Development -prior patterns of adaptation are incorporated into successive reorganizations at subsequent periods of development -ex: an infant’s eye contact and speech sounds evolves into higher-order functions like speech and language over time -continual change and transformation Sensitive Periods -windows of time during which environmental influences on development, both good and bad, are enhanced -ex: infants are highly sensitive to emotional cues and proximity to their caregivers which assists them in developing secure attachments 1) Biological Perspectives -At the beginning, the brain undergoes differentiation and embryonic development -The brain undergoes continual changes as the individual adapts to environmental demands. -Brain maturation is an organized, hierarchical process that builds on earlier function -Ex: the prefrontal cortex does not fully mature until the early 20’s. Neural Plasticity -malleability of the brain Genetic Contributions -Genes: we all have 20,000-25,000 of them in our unique genome -Gene: a stretch of DNA that produces a protein -Genes influence how we respond to the environment, and the environment influences our genes. -Chromosomes: 22 match pairs from both mother and father and one X and Y chromosome pair from each. -Males (XY) and Females (XX) Gene-Environment Interaction (GxE) -the interplay of nature and nurture -when genetic and environmental influences meet Epigenetic Mechanisms -Involves changes in gene activity resulting from a variety of environmental factors -Ex: toxins, diet, stress

Behavioral Genetics -a branch of genetics that investigates possible connections between a genetic predisposition and observed behavior, taking into account environmental and genetic influences -uses family aggregation studies (compares result within one family to the general population) -also uses twin studies (Mz and Dz) Molecular Genetics -directly assess the association between variations in DNA sequences and variations in the trait(s). -identifies specific genes for disorders and mutations Brain Structures and Functions

The Limbic System

Brain Structure and Function Brain stem = handles most of the autonomic functions necessary to stay alive. Hindbrain = regulates autonomic activities such as breathing, heartbeat, and digestion. Cerebellum = controls motor coordination. Midbrain = coordinates movement with sensory input. Thalamus and hypothalamus = regulation of behavior and emotion. Limbic system = contains a number of structures that are suspected causes of psychopathology, such as the hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum, and amygdala. These important structures regulate emotional experiences and expressions and play a significant role in learning and

impulse control. The limbic system also regulates the basic drives of sex, aggression, hunger, and thirst. Basal ganglia = area regulates, organizes, and filters information related to cognition, emotions, mood, and motor function, and that it has been implicated in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); disorders affecting motor behavior, such as tics and tremors; and obsessive– compulsive disorder (OCD). Cerebral cortex = gives us our distinctly human qualities and allows us to plan as well as to reason and to create. Divided in two hemispheres: left hemisphere  role in verbal and cognitive processes, right hemisphere  role in social perception and creativity.

The Endocrine System -The adrenal glands above the kidneys produce epinephrine (adrenaline) -The thyroid gland produces the hormone thyroxine which is needed for proper energy metabolism and growth -The pituitary gland helps the body’s functions by regulating hormones, including estrogen and testosterone Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA): -The connection between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland that stimulates cortisol (the stress hormone) and epinephrine. -This system works on a feedback loop: Cortisol modulates the stress response by acting on the hypothalamus to inhibit the continued release of CRH.

Brain Circuits -paths from one part of the brain to another Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitter

Normal Functions

Implicated Role in Psychopathology

BenzodiazepineGABA

Reduces arousal and moderates emotional responses, such as anger, hostility, and aggression Is linked to feelings of anxiety and discomfort

Anxiety disorder

Dopamine

May act as a switch that turns on various brain circuits, allowing other neurotransmitters to inhibit or facilitate emotions or behavior Is involved in exploratory, extroverted, and pleasure-seeking activity

Schizophrenia Mood disorders Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Norepinephrine

Facilitates or controls emergency reactions and alarm responses Plays a role in emotional and behavioral regulation

Not directly involved in specific disorders (acts generally to regulate or modulate behavioral tendencies)

Serotonin

Plays a role in information and motor coordination Inhibits children’s tendency to explore their surroundings Moderates and regulates a number of critical behaviors, such as eating, sleeping, and expressing anger

Regulatory problems, such as eating and sleep disorders Obsessive–compulsive disorder Schizophrenia and mood disorders

2) Psychological Perspectives -Focuses on emotional influences Emotional Influences -Emotions assist us in our fight-or-flight response. -Children look to the emotional expression and cues of their caregivers to provide them with the information needed to formulate a basic understanding of what is going on. Emotion Reactivity -refers to individual differences in the threshold and intensity of emotional experiences -i.e. how each individual reacts to their emotional experiences Emotion Regulation -involves enhancing, maintaining or inhibiting emotional arousal, which is usually done for a purpose or goal -i.e. you are crying too much and you decide to inhibit and regulate why you are crying Temperament -refers to the child’s organized style of behavior that appears early in development, such as fussiness or fearfulness, which shapes the child’s approach to his or her environment, and vice versa -an early building block for personality

3 dimensions of temperament: 1) positive affect and approach -easy child 2) fearful or inhibited -slow-to-warm-up child, cautious and shows distress 3) negative affect or irritability -difficult child -negative and intense in mood, irritable, distressed Self-Regulation -the best formula for healthy, normal adjustment -a balance between emotional reactivity and self-control Personality Disorders -Do not normally show until early adulthood -Consist of antisocial, borderline, histrionic, paranoid, schizotypal, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive Behavioral Influences -looks at observable behavior and rejects the notion that cognitive mediation is necessary for explaining behavior -successfully changing a problem behavior does not imply knowledge about its origin but rather emphasizes contemporaneous causes (controlling variables) Cognitive Influences -interested in how certain thought patterns develop over time and are related to particular behavioral strategies, like problem solving Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) -based on Skinner’s works -positive and negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment Classical Conditioning -Pavlov and Watson -the acquisition of deviant behavior on the basis of paired associations between previously neutral stimuli (i.e. bell or tone) and unconditioned stimuli (i.e. food) -CS + UCS = CR -ex: Jorge associated reading (CS) with humiliation (UCS) = avoidance of reading (CR) Social Learning -considers overt behavior and cognitive mediators -children can learn a new behavior simply by watching someone do it Social Cognition -how children think about themselves and others, resulting in the formation of mental representations

3) Family, Social and Cultural Perspectives -Proximal (close-by) -Distal (further-removed) -Shared environment: refers to environmental factors that produce similarities in developmental outcomes among siblings in the same family -Non-shared environment: refers to environmental factors that produce behavioral differences among siblings Attachment -refers to the process of establishing and maintaining an emotional bond with parents or other significant individuals -ex: infant-caregiver attachment -serves as an important stress-reduction function 4 Types of Attachments -Secure (normal) -Insecure (anxious-avoidant)  (ex: conduct disorder) -Insecure (anxious-resistant)  (ex: depression) -Disorganized, disoriented  (ex: no consensus, but generally personality disorders) Family Systems -systems within the family -it is difficult to understand or predict the behavior of a particular family member, ex: child, in isolation from other family members -relationships are the focus

PSYC 412: Chapter 3: Research Research -a systematic way of finding answers to questions -a method of inquiry that follows certain rules -it is the accumulation of studies, not one study, that advances the field of research Facilitated Communication (FC) -teaching children with autism to communicate via a keyboard -skepticism: but who is really pressing the keys: the facilitator or the child? -pseudoscience: demonstrations of benefit are based on anecdotes or testimonials The Research Process 1) Develop Hypothesis (based on theory, observation and previous findings) 2) Identifying the Sample (selecting measures, research design and procedures) 3) Data collection and analysis, interpretation and findings) Epidemiological Research -the study of the incidence, prevalence and co-occurrence of childhood disorders Incidence Rates -the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specific period Prevalence Rates -refer to all cases, whether new or previously existing, observed within a period of time Prospective vs. Retrospective Studies -prospective: studying the same sample over time and assessing them at periodic intervals -retrospective: asking people to remember what occurred at an earlier time *prospective studies are double that of retrospective studies 3 variables of interest in abnormal child psychology are: -Correlates: variables that are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other -Risks: a variable that precedes an outcome of interest and increases the chances of a negative outcome  Vs. protective variable: a positive variable that precedes an outcome of interest and decreases the chances that negative outcomes will occur  Sleeper effects: delayed effects that only become apparent in later childhood or adolescence -Causes: they influence directly or indirectly through other variables, the occurrence of a behavior or disorder of interest

Moderator Variables -influence the direction or strength of the variables of interest -i.e. have an independent effect on the existing relationship between 2 variables -ex: the sex of a child can influence the other 2 variables Mediator Variables -refers to the process, mechanism or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome -ex: a mother’s di...