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The Journal Thesi gni fi canc eofi mmi gr at i oni nt hef or mat i onofan Amer i cani dent i t y .

THEUNI TEDSTATESOFAMERI CAwasas t at e,bef or ei tbecamea nat i on.TheAmer i c anRev ol ut i onwasnotanupr i s i ngofas ubj ec t peopl e,butat hr owi ngoffofoppr es si v eBr i t i s hr ul eont hepar tofa c onger yofi nt er es tgr oupsandpol i t i cal f ac t i ons .Themot t o" EPl ur i bus Unum"( Fr om Many ,One)hascomet obei nt er pr et edast hef or gi ngof onepeopl ef r om t hedi v er s i t yofmanyet hni c ,r ac i al ,andr el i gi ous el ement s ,butatt het i meofi t sadopt i oni n1776,i tex pr es s edt he as pi r at i ont hatt het hi r t eenf or mercol oni eswoul dmer gei nt oauni t ar y s t at e. ( FN1) St i l l t heAmer i canpopul at i oni n1790washar dl yhomogeneous . Tobegi nwi t h,al mostni net eenper c entwasofAf r i canancest r y , anot hert wel v eper c entScotandScot s I r i shandt enper centGer man, wi t hs mal l ernumber sofFr enc h,I r i s h,andWel s h;t heEngl i s hs t oc k c ompr i s edonl yf or t y ei ghtper cent .Thi senumer at i on,ofc our s e,does noti nc l udet heI ndi ans .Al t hought heBr i t i s hmadeupacl earmaj or i t y , gi v ent hemar k eddi ffer encesamongEngl i s h,Scot s ,Scot s I r i sh,and Wel sh,i ti safi ct i ont oat t r i but eacommonnat i onal i t yt osuc hamot l ey c r ew.I ns hor t ,Amer i cawasal r eadya" compl exet hni cmos ai c , " di v i dedi nt os egr egat ed,quar r el s omegr oupsbyc ul t ur e,l anguage, r el i gi on,andr ac e. ( FN2) Hav i ngac hi ev edi ndependencet het askofnat i onbui l di ngwas s t i l l aheadf ort hel eader soft henewr epubl i c .Asf or merc ol oni al s , t heynour i s hedanAngl ophobi aagai ns tt hei rr ecenti mper i al mas t er s andaspi r edt ocr eat i ngadi s t i nctAmer i cannat i onal i t y .Lacki ngdeep r oot si nt hes oi l ,anci entt i esofbl ood,andr ecour s et o" my s t i cc hor ds ofmemor y , "suc hanat i onal i dent i t yc oul dbef as hi onedonl yf r om t he Enl i ght enmenti deal swhi c hhadi nspi r edt heDec l ar at i onof

I ndependenceandi nf or medt heCons t i t ut i on.Gi v ent hes e as sumpt i onsr egar di ngt heuni v er sal nat ur eofmanki ndandt he doct r i neofnat ur al r i ght s ,onebecameanAmer i c anbyc hoi ce,notby des cent .Whatwasas k edoft heas pi r antwasnotanoat hoff eal t yt oa s ov er ei gnbutacommi t mentt ot hepr i nci pl esofAmer i cangov er nment . ThusAmer i cani dent i t ywasdefinedf r om t hebegi nni ngsoft hecount r y asi deol ogi cal i nnat ur e. ( FN3) Whendr af t edi n1787t heConst i t ut i onoft heUni t edSt at esdi dnot defi nec i t i z ens hi p.Theonl ydi st i nct i oni tmadebet weennat ur al bor n andnat ur al i z edci t i z ensi st hatt hel at t erwer et obei nel i gi bl ef ort he pr esi denc y .I taut hor i z edt heCongr esst oes t abl i sh" anuni f or mr ul eof nat ur al i z at i on, "andbyanactof1790,t hec r i t er i af ornat ur al i z at i on wer ees t abl i shed:ar es i denceoft woy ear s( s ubs equent l ychangedt o fi v ey ear s ) ;goodc har act er ;andt het aki ngofanoat ht os uppor tt he Cons t i t ut i onandi nt hel anguageoft henat ur al i z at i oncer t i fic at et o " abs ol ut el yandent i r el yr enounceandabj ur eal l al l egi anceandfi del i t y t oev er yf or ei gnPr i nce,Pot ent at e,St at eorSov er ei gnt y . "Ov ert he c our s eoft wocent ur i es ,t hes el i ber al r equi r ement shav eenabl ed mi l l i onsofi mmi gr ant st obecomeAmer i canci t i z ens . ( FN4) The1790l aw,howev er ,al s ospec i fi edt hatnat ur al i z at i onwast o beav ai l abl et o" anyal i en,bei ngaf r eewhi t eper s on[ i t al i csmi ne] . "By t hi spr ov i si onnotonl ywer ebl ack si nel i gi bl ef orc i t i z ens hi p,butal so i mmi gr ant sofot herr aceswhent heybegant oar r i v el at eri nt he ni net eent hcent ur y .Dur i ngRecons t r uct i on,anAc tof1870ex t ended t hepr i v i l egeofnat ur al i z at i ont o" al i ensofAf r i cannat i vi t yandt o per sonsofAf r i candes cent , "buts hor t l yt her eaf t ert heChi nes e Ex c l usi onAc tof1882ex pl i c i t l yex cl udedChi nesei mmi gr ant sf r om ac qui r i ngc i t i z ens hi p.TheUni t edSt at es ,howev er ,hasf ol l owedt he pr i nc i pl eofj uss ol ir at hert hanj ussangui ni s ,i . e. ,t heci t i z ens hi pofa c hi l di sdet er mi nedbyi t scount r yofbi r t hnotbyt hatoft hepar ent s . Thusev enAmer i canbor nchi l dr enofi mmi gr antpar ent swhower e deni edci t i z enshi pori l l egal l yent er edt hecount r y wer ec i t i z ensby bi r t hr i ght .Yetbyac ur i ousanomal y ,unt i l 1924nat i v ebor nI ndi ans whomai nt ai nedt r i bal t i eswer edeni edci t i z enshi pont hefi ct i ont hat t heywer emember sof" al i ennat i ons . " ( FN5) Ev enpr i ort ot hemas si mmi gr at i onsoft heni net eent hand

t went i et hcent ur i es ,Angl oAmer i cans( i . e. ,des cendant soft heor i gi nal Br i t i s hcol oni s t s)hadr ei fi edr ac ei nt ocat egor i esofhumanbei ngswho wer et obeadmi t t edorex c l udedf r om t hec i t i z enr yoft her epubl i con t hebas i sofs ki nc ol or .Fr om i t sor i gi ns ,t hei nc l usi v ei deol ogi c al defi ni t i onofAmer i cani dent i t yhadbegunt obet r i mmedandcar v edt o fi tt heex c l us i v er ac i alandet hni cf eat ur esoft hedomi nantgr oup.Si nc e 1820,r ec ur r i ngwav esofi mmi gr at i ont ot al i ngov erfi f t y fi v emi l l i on per sonshav ei nundat edt hecount r y .Comi ngf r om al l cor ner soft he gl obe,t hesenewcomer shav ei nc l udedr epr esent at i v esofpr act i cal l y al l c ul t ur es ,r aces ,andr el i gi onsonear t h.Suc hani r i des cent pr oc ess i onofhumani t ywasagai nandagai nt ot es tands t r ai nt he abs or pt i v ecapac i t yoft her epubl i candofi t sf oundi ngpr i nci pl et hat" al l menar ec r eat edequal . " ( FN6) Abr i efchar ac t er i z at i onoft hemai nc ont our soft het hr eemaj or wav esofi mmi gr at i onwi l l suggestt hecompl ex i t yoft hi schal l enge. Dur i ngt hefi r s twav e( 18411890) ,at ot al ofal mostfif t eenmi l l i on ar r i v al swer er ecor ded.Oft hese,ov erf ourmi l l i onwer eGer mans , t hr eemi l l i onsI r i s h,anot hert hr eemi l l i onsBr i t i s h,andami l l i on Sc andi navi ans .As econdwav e( 18911920)br oughtanaddi t i onal ei ght eenpl usmi l l i oni mmi gr ant sofwhi c hal mostf ourmi l l i onwer ef r om I t al y ,t hr eeands i xt ent hsmi l l i onf r om Aus t r i aHungar y ,andt hr ee mi l l i onf r om Rus s i a( t hosef r om Aus t r i aHungar yandRus s i awer e al mos tent i r el ySl av sandJ ews ) .Thei nt er v eni ngdecadesf r om 1920 t o1960wer emar k edbyahi at usi ni mmi gr at i onduet oU. S.r es t r i c t i v e pol i ci es ,economi cdepr ess i on,andwar .Thet hi r dwav e,whi c hbegan i n1965andi ss t i l l i npr ogr esshast ot al edappr ox i mat el ysi x t een mi l l i ons ;ofwhom,s omet went y f ourper centcamef r om Mex i co, anot hert went y f ourper centf r om Cent r al andSout hAmer i canandt he Car i bbean,andt hi r t y fi v eper c entf r om As i a.Whi l eal mos tni net y per c entoft hefir s tt wowav esor i gi nat edi nEur ope,onl yt wel v eper c ent oft het hi r ddi d. ( FN7) Suc hgr ossfigur esdonotbegi nt ohi ntatt hewi des pect r um of r ac es ,c ul t ur es ,andr el i gi onswhi c hhav ebeeni nt r oducedi nt o Amer i cans oci et yt hr ought heseper i odi ci nf usi onsofnewbl ood.The 1990Uni t edSt at esCensuspr ov i desagl i mps eoft hecompl ex i t yof t heet hni cmak eupoft heAmer i canpeopl et oday .I nr espons et ot he

ques t i on" Whati sy ourances t r yoret hni cor i gi n?, "ov erni net yper cent ans wer edwi t hatl eas tones peci fi cances t r y .Ther es ponseswer e t abul at edf or215ances t r ygr oups .Notsur pr i si ngl y ,t hel ar ges t ancest r ygr oupsbyf arwer et heGer man,I r i s h,Engl i s h,andAf r oAmer i can,al l ofwhi chr epor t edov ert went ymi l l i ons .Ot hergr oups r epor t i ngov ers i xmi l l i onwer et heI t al i an,Mex i can,Fr enc h,Pol i sh, Amer i canI ndi an,Dut ch,andScot c hI r i sh,whi l eanot hert went y one gr oupsr epor t edov erami l l i oneach.Scanni ngt her os t erofances t r i es gi v esoneas enseoft hepl et hor aofs mal l ergr oupsr epr es ent edi nt he Amer i canpopul at i on:Mal t es e,Basque,Rom,Wi ndi s h,Par aguay an, Bel z i an,Guy anes e,Yemeni ,Khmer ,Mi cr ones i an,ands oon.Forwhat i si twor t h,onl yfi v eper c entgav et her espons e" Amer i c an. " ( FN8) Anot heri ndi cat i onofi ncr easeddi v er si t yi st hef actt hatt her ear enow s omet hr eemi l l i onMusl i msi nt heUni t edSt at es .Whatbeganasa s t r i c t l yPr ot es t antcount r y ,andgr adual l ymader oom f orCat hol i c sand J ews ,nowmus taccommodat eMus l i ms ,Bhuddi s t s ,andHi ndusas wel l .Themos queandt empl ehav ej oi nedt hec hur chands y nagogue ashousesofwor s hi pi nmanyAmer i canci t i es . ( FN9) Whati st hemeani ngofal l t hi sf oranAmer i cani dent i t y ?The i mmi gr at i onandnat ur al i z at i onpol i ci espur suedbyacount r yar eak ey t ounder st andi ngi t ssel f conc ept i onasanat i on.Bydet er mi ni ngwhom t oadmi tt or esi denceandc i t i z enshi p,t her ul i ngel ementdefi nest he f ut ur eet hni candr ac i alcomposi t i onoft hepopul at i onandbodypol i t i c . Eachoft het hr eegr eatwav esofi mmi gr at i onhasi ns pi r edmuc hsoul s ear c hi ngandi nt ens edebat eov ert heconsequencesf ort her epubl i c . Amer i canshav ebeenofatl eas tt womi ndsr egar di ngt hei npour i ngof mi l l i onsofi mmi gr ant s . Thenot i onofAmer i caasanas yl um f ort heoppr es sedoft he wor l dhasex er t edapower f ul i nfluenceont hei rmi ndsandhear t s .I n 1776,i nhi st r act ,CommonSens e,t hepamphl et eerThomasPai ne fi r s tdefinedAmer i ca' ss peci al mi s si on:" Ev er ys potoft heOl dWor l di s ov er r unwi t hoppr es s i on.Fr eedom hasbeenhunt edr oundt hegl obe. . . . O!r ec ei v et hef ugi t i v eandpr epar ei nt i meanas y l um f or manki nd. " ( FN10)Andl eti tbes ai dt hati twasflat t er i ngt ot henat i onal egot hatt heUni t edSt at eswast hePr omi sedLandt ot hepoorand per sec ut edoft heOl dWor l d.EmmaLaz ar usexpr ess edt hi ssent i ment

i nhers onnet ," TheNewCol os sus "( 1883)whi chwaswr i t t ent ohel p r ai s ef undsf ort hebaseoft heSt at ueofLi ber t y : " Keep,anci entl ands ,y ourst or i edpomp, "pr oc l ai mst heMot herof Ex i l es ," Gi v emey ourt i r ed,y ourpoor ,y ourhuddl edmass esy ear ni ng t obr eat hef r ee,t hewr et chedr ef us eofy ourt eemi ngs hor e.Send t hese,t hehomel es s ,t het empest t os sedt ome.Il i f tmyl ampbesi de t heGol denDoor . " ( FN11) Ofcour se,mor epr act i cal r easonsf oraf r eeandunl i mi t ed i mmi gr at i onwer eci t edbyi t spr oponent s .Formuc hofAmer i can hi s t or y ,i mmi gr ant shav ec onst i t ut edaness ent i al sour c eofl aborand i ni t i at i v easwor k er s ,f ar mer s ,andmer c hant sf oranex pandi ng economy . FormanyAmer i cans ,howev er ,unr es t r i c t edi mmi gr at i onhas pos edamani f ol dt hr eatt ot hes t abi l i t yoft hes oc i al or der ,t hes t andar d ofl i v i ngofnat i v ewor k er s ,t heheal t hoft hebodypol i t i c ,andt he nat i onal i dent i t y .ThomasJeffer son,f orex ampl e,obj ect edt ot he encour agementofi mmi gr at i onont hegr oundst hatc omi ngf r om abs ol ut emonar c hi es ,t heemi gr ant swoul di nf uset hei rspi r i ti nt o Amer i canpubl i cl i f eandr enderi t" ahet er ogeneous ,i ncoher ent , di s t r ac t edmas s . " ( FN12)Thosemov edbysuchf ear sandanx i et i es hav ei nt er mi t t ent l ymount edant i i mmi gr ant ,nat i v i stmov ement swhi c h atcer t ai nmoment si nAmer i canhi s t or yhav egai neds i gni fic ant pol i t i cal power .Asonemi ghtex pectt hest r engt hofs uchx enophobi c c ampai gnshaswax edandwanedi nr hy t hm wi t ht hev ol umeof i mmi gr at i on,butev enmor ewi t ht hegener al st at eoft heeconomyand s oci et y .Al t hought het ar get sofnat i vi s tat t ack schangedov ert i me,a c onst antt hemehasbeent hedangerpos edbyf or ei gner st oAmer i can v al uesandi nst i t ut i ons . ( FN13) Dur i ngt hefi r s twav e,I r i s hCat hol i csi npar t i c ul arwer eaccus edof c onst i t ut i ngs uchaper i l .Notonl ydi dt hei rbr awl i nganddr i nki ng offendYank ees ensi bi l i t i es ,asCat hol i cst heywer evi ewedasmi ni ons oft hePopeandenemi esoft hePr ot es t antc har act eroft hecount r y . Samuel F. B.Mor se,ar t i st ,i nv ent or ,andwr i t er ,pas si onat el yar t i cul at ed t hi ss ent i menti nhi st r act ,I mmi mentDanger st ot heFr eeI ns t i t ut i onsof t heUni t edSt at esThr oughFor ei gnI mmi gr at i on. . . . ( 1835) .Per c ei vi ngi n t hear r i v al ofgr eatnumber sofRomanCat hol i cs( " humanpr i es t -

c ont r ol l edmachi nes " )aJes ui tcons pi r ac yt odes t r oyAmer i can democ r ac y ,Mor s eadv ocat edt hatf or ei gner shenc ef or t hbedeni edt he r i ghtofsuffr age. ( FN14)ThePr ot es t antCr us adeagai nstCat hol i c i mmi gr at i oncul mi nat edwi t ht hef or mat i onoft heAmer i can( orKnowNot hi ng)Par t yi n1854whos ebat t l ecr ywas" Amer i caf ort he Amer i cans ! "I nt hi ssl oganwasembodi edanex cl us i v edefi ni t i onoft he nat i onal i dent i t y ,onewhi c hsoughtt opr eser v ei t sPr ot est antc har act er . Abr aham Li ncol ncomment edupont hi sdepar t ur ef r om t hecount r y ' s f oundi ngchar t er :" Asanat i on,webeganbydec l ar i ngt hat' al lmenar e c r eat edequal . ' Wenowpr ac t i cal l yr eadi tal lmenar ec r eat edequal , ' ex c eptnegr oes . ' Whent heKnowNot hi ngsgetcont r ol ,i twi l lr ead' al l menar ec r eat edequal ,ex c eptnegr oes,andf or ei gner sand c at hol i cs . ' " ( FN15)TheKnowNot hi ngmov ementwass wal l owedupby t hes ect i onal s t r i f ewhi c hr esul t edi nt heCi vi l War .Howev er ,ant i Cat hol i c i s m cont i nuedt obepower f ul s t r ai nofnat i v i sm unt i l wel l i nt o t he20t hc ent ur y .I nf ac t ,onecansayt hatonl ywi t ht heel ec t i onof J ohnF.Kennedyaspr esi denti n1960wast her edefi ni t i onoft he Amer i cani dent i t yt oi nc l udeRomanCat hol i csf ul l yr eal i z ed. Des pi t eepi s odesofx enophobi a,dur i ngt hefi r stcent ur yofi t s exi s t encet heUni t edSt at eswel comedwi t hmi ni malr egul at i onal l c omer s .I n1882,howev er ,t wos t at ut eswer eenact edwhi chi ni t i at eda pr oc essofgr adual t i ght eni ngofr es t r i ct i onsuponent r yi nt ot he c ount r y .Thefi r s tes t abl i s hedqual i t at i v eheal t handmor als t andar dsby ex c l udi ngc r i mi nal s ,pr os t i t ut es ,l unat i cs ,i di ot s ,andpauper s .The s econd,t heChi neseEx c l usi onAct ,whi c hwast her esul tofav i r ul ent l y r ac i s tmov ementcent er edont heWes tCoast ,deni edadmi s s i ont o Chi nesel abor er sandbar r edChi nesei mmi gr ant sf r om ac qui r i ng c i t i z ens hi p.Fol l owi ngt heenact mentoft hi sl aw,agi t at i onf orex c l usi on ofAs i anscont i nuedasJ apaneseandot her sar r i v ed,cul mi nat i ngi n t hepr ov i si onoft heI mmi gr at i onLawof1924whi c hdeni edent r yt o al i ensi nel i gi bl ef orc i t i z ens hi p,i neffec tal lAsi ans . ( FN16)I fLi ncol n hads t i l l beenal i v e,hecoul dhav eamendedhi sc r i t i queofnat i v i s mt o i nc l udeAsi ansamongt hos eex cl udedf r om t hepr opos i t i ont hat" al l menar ec r eat edequal . "Dur i ngandaf t erWor l dWarI I ,acombi nat i on ofi nt er nat i onalpol i t i csanddemocr at i ci deal i sm fi nal l ys ec ur edt he el i mi nat i onofal l r ac i al r es t r i c t i onsf r om i mmi gr at i onandnat ur al i z at i on

pol i ci es . I nt hel at eni net eent hcent ur y ," sc i ent i fi c"r ac i al i sm,r oot edi n Soc i alDar wi ni sm,becameamaj ort enetofAngl oAmer i can et hnonat i onal i sm.Yank eei deol ogues ,suc hasHenr yCabotLodge, j us t i fi edi mper i al i s m abr oadandi mmi gr at i onr es t r i c t i onathomei n t er msofAngl oSax ons uper i or i t y .Byt hent hes econdi mmi gr antwav e wasbegi nni ngt owas hov ert hecount r y ,br i ngi ngwi t hi tnewand s t r angepeopl esf r om eas t er nEur ope,t heBal kans ,andt he Medi t er r anean.Thei nc r easi ngpr esenceofI t al i ans ,J ews ,Pol es , Sl ov aks ,Cr oat i ans ,Gr eek s ,Sy r i ans ,andot hernat i onal i t i esar ous ed al ar m ont hepar tofAngl oAmer i c ans .TheBost onBr ahmi naut hor , Henr yJ ames ,hav i ngr et ur nedt ot heUni t edSt at esi n1904af t eran abs enceoft went yy ear swasshoc k edbyt heov er whel mi ng" al i eni sm" ofNewYor kCi t y ." Whatmeani ng, "heas k ed," canc ont i nuet oat t ach t os uchat er m ast he" Amer i can' char ac t er " ?whatt ype,asar esul tof s uchapr odi gi ousamal gam,suc hahodgepodgeofr ac i al i ngr edi ent s , i st obeconcei v edasshapi ngi t sel f . . . i nt hec aul dr onoft he" Amer i can' c har act er " ?( FN17) Manyt houghtt heout comeshoul dbepr edet er mi nedbya s el ect i v es cr eeni ngoft hei ngr edi ent s .I nadv ocat i ngal i t er ac yt es tf or i mmi gr ant s ,Senat orLodgepl acedhi sar guments quar el yonr ac i al gr ounds :" Ther acesmos taffect edbyt he. . . t es tar et hos ewhose emi gr at i ont ot hi scount r yhasbegunwi t hi nt hel as tt went yy ear sand s wel l edr api dl yt oenor mouspr opor t i ons ,r ac eswi t hwhi cht heEngl i shs peaki ngpeopl ehav enev erhi t her t oass i mi l at ed,andwhoar emost al i ent ot hegr eatbodyoft hepeopl eoft heUni t edSt at es . " ( FN18)Thi s c ampai gnagai nst" undes i r abl eanddanger ousi mmi gr ant s , "i . e. , s out her nandeast er nEur opeans ,succ eededi nsec ur i ng Congr es s i onal enac t mentoft hel i t er ac yt es tr equi r ementont hr ee occ asi onsonl yt ohav ei tencount erapr es i dent i al v et oeac ht i me. Pr esi dentWoodr owWi l s oni nv ok edol deri deal si nhi sv et omes sage; t hel i t er ar yt es t ,heass er t ed,woul dc l os et he" gat esofay l um"and " i mposet es t s[ not ]ofqual i t yorofchar ac t erorper s onalfit nes s ,but t es t sofoppor t uni t y . " ( FN19) Wor l dWarI ,howev er ,ar ous edani nt ensepat r i ot i s m whi ch expr ess edi t sel fi ndemandsf or" OneHundr edPer c entAmer i cani sm"

andat t ac ksupon" hyphenat edAmer i cans , "Ger man-Amer i cansi n par t i c ul ar .For merPr esi dentTheodor eRoos ev el tex pr ess edt hi s uncompr omi s i ngst andar dofconf or mi t y :" WeofAmer i caf or m anew nat i onal i t y ! . . . .Ei t heramani sanAmer i canandnot hi ngel se, "he dec l ar ed," orhei snotanAmer i canatal l . " ( FN20)Thi sant i i mmi gr ant c l i mat enotonl yi nsur edt hepass ageoft hel i t er ac yt estov era pr esi dent i al v et o,butpr epar edt hewayf ort heI mmi gr at i onAc t sof 1921and1924whi ches t abl i shedquot as y s t emsdesi gnedt o dr as t i c al l yr educet henumberofsout her nandeas t er nEur opeansand t obaral l Asi ans .Theeugeni car gumentt hatt hes ei nf er i orbr eeds wer epol l ut i ngt heAmer i canger m pl as mc ar r i edgr eatwei ghti nt he Congr es s i onal debat esasdi dt hec ont ent i ont hatf or ei gner swer et he bear er sofr adi cal i deol ogi es .Theses t at ut ess oughtt of r eez et he bi ol ogi cal andi deol ogi cal i dent i t yoft heAmer i canpeopl ebypr ot ec t i ng t hem f r om cont ami nat i onf r om abr oad. ( FN21) Forf or t yy ear s ,t heUni t edSt at es ,wi t hmi normodi fi cat i ons , pur suedt hi sr est r i ct i v ei mmi gr at i onpol i c y .Howev er ,t heI mmi gr at i on Ac tof1965putt hecount r yonar adi cal l ynewcour se,wi t hr es ul t s whi c hatt het i mewer enotf or es een.Undert hi sl aw,t heNat i onal Or i gi nsQuot as y s t em wasdoneawaywi t h;i ns t eadt ot al sof170, 000 and120, 000i mmi gr ant spery earwer eal l oc at edr es pect i v el yt ot he East er nandWes t er nhemi s pher eswi t hamax i mum of20, 000v i sast o anyonecount r y( i ni t i al l yappl i edt ot heEas t er nHemi s pher e,but ext endedt ot heWes t er nHemi spher ei n1978) .Si gni ngt hebi l l att he St at ueofLi ber t y ,Pr esi dentL y ndonB.Johns onhai l edi tasar et ur nt o " t hefines tof[ Amer i c an]t r adi t i ons" ;whi l et hel awc or r ecedanol d i nj us t i ce,het houghti twoul dhav ef ewpr ac t i cal cons equences .He wasmi s t ak en.I nf ac t ,t hel awof1965openedt hegat est ot het hi r d wav eofi mmi gr at i on.Notonl yhast heannual v ol umeofi mmi gr at i on s i ncei ncr easedst eadi l yt ot hec ur r entl ev el ofami l l i onormor e ar r i v al say ear ,butashasbeennot edt henewc omer sar enow pr edomi nant l yAs i anandLat i nAmer i can. ( FN22) Thec umul at i v ei mpactofani mmi gr at i onofsi x t eenp...