The Julio-Claudians and the Roman Empire Syllabus Notes PDF

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The Julio-Claudians and the Roman Empire Syllabus Notes...

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The Julio-Claudians and the Roman Empire AD 14-69 1

Development of the Principate................................................................................ 1 1.1

Impact of the death of Augustus...................................................................... 1

1.2 Changing role of the princeps under the Julio-Claudian rulers: Tiberius, Gaius (Caligula), Claudius, Nero............................................................................................ 2 1.3

The Senate: changing role and responsibilities................................................6

1.4 Reforms and policies of the Julio-Claudian rulers: political, social, legal, religious and administrative........................................................................................ 9 1.5

Changing image of the princeps..................................................................... 10

1.6 Political roles of the Praetorian Guard and army; role of Sejanus, Macro and Burrus....................................................................................................................... 11 1.7

Significance of building programs...................................................................14

1.8 Imperial family and problems of the succession: Livia, Julia, Germanicus, Agrippina the Elder, Messalina, Agrippina the Younger.............................................16

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Consequences of the death of Nero................................................................17

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Role and contribution of Seneca..................................................................... 17

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Year of the Four Emperors: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian.........................17

The empire............................................................................................................ 18 2.1

Expansion and consolidation of the empire....................................................18

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The relationship of the princeps and the army...............................................21

2.3 Administration of the empire: development of the imperial bureaucracy; role of freedmen: Pallas and Narcissus............................................................................23 2.4

Development of the imperial cult throughout the empire...............................23

1 Development of the Principate 1.1 Impact of the death of Augustus Before Augustus’ death:  The principate was the form of government established by Augustus in 27 BC, the adopted son of Julius Caesar, a ‘Julian’. Augustus was regarded as the person who brought stability and peace to Rome after a century of civil conflict.  Rather than abusing his powerful position as a dictator, he took the title of princeps, ‘first citizen.’  To avoid civil unrest, he believed a hereditary successor would maintain peace and stability in Rome. o His nephew Marcellus and grandsons Gaius and Lucius all died before he did. o He adopted his Claudian stepson and Agrippa Postumus at the same time.  Tiberius may have resented the fact that he was never Augustus’ first choice. o However, he was one of Rome’s greatest generals, and was granted maius imperium and tribunicia potestas effectively making him the partner of Augustus, and then renewed and given consular imperium. Augustus clearly designated Tiberius as his successor. Augustus died in AD 14 after 41 years as princeps, when Tiberius was 55.  After reading Augustus’ will, the consuls, Commander of the Praetorian Guard, the Senate, army and public conferred the principate to Tiberius. o He appeared to be genuinely reluctant to assume the position and “showed signs of hesitation” with “carefully evasive answers.” (Suetonius)

Tacitus says he was being hypocritical and testing attitudes, not wanting to appear to have “wormed his way in… by adoption”. Tacitus never considers his motives as sincere, and lists Tiberius’ immediate actiosn following Augustus’ death as proof he may not have been reluctant.  Gave the watch word to the Guard as commander, already having personal soldiers and sending letters to the army as if already emperor. Tacitus believes his only hesitations were before the Senate, worried about Germanicus’ popularity. o Modern scepticism has led to different interpretations, such as wanting to give Senate the freedom to set future precedent, as well as possibly doubting his ability as he was old and reserved by nature, and the empire being an enormous burden. o He also might have been following Augustus’ example as “the scene in AD 14 is strikingly reminiscent of the scene in 27 BC.” (Salmon) He eventually accepted powers of princeps in AD 14 but Suetonius says still hinted at later resignation. After the will, Livia was adopted into the Julian family, Tiberius and Livia were named heirs and a vast sum of money was given to the people of Rome and also left to the army and members of the Guard. Suetonius believes Tiberius revealed his death “only after getting rid of Agrippa Postumus”. o Agrippa Postumus was the grandson of Augustus, adopted at the same time as Tiberius but was banished to a prison island by Augustus for brutal behaviour. o He was murdered by his guarding staff, supposedly by Tiberius’ instructions but Tacitus strongly argues against this accusing Livia, as he was a threat to Tiberius’ position. Tacitus describes this as “the new reign’s first crime” however E.T. Salmon believes “in view of the circumstances, the decision… was certainly prudent.” Immediately after his accession, two serious mutinies occurred, the first major crisis he had to deal with. o Among the troops in Pannonia on the Danube, and Lower Germany on the Rhine. o Although they were not personal protests against Tiberius, a change of ruler gave troops to show their dissatisfaction with the changing length of service, poor pay and appalling conditions. o Tiberius delegated responsibility for addressing them to his son Drusus and adopted son Germanicus.  A delegation of troops was sent to Rome under the command of Blaesus, which quietened the troops but eventually re-erupted, including the killing of senior officers.  Drusus talked to the men, and just as violence seemed to erupt there was an eclipse of the moon. He used this to his advantage, playing on fear and superstition to calm the situation.  Germany was far more serious. “This was a massive outbreak… implacable character of the revolt.” (Tacitus). Of even greater concern were questionable calls made, where Germanicus melodramatically neutralised this threat by offering to kill himself than be disloyal.  Despite Tacitus’ best efforts, Germanicus’ reputation is not enhanced by his handling of the mutiny in Germany. He failed to call in loyal reinforcements and intervene, as well as endangering the lives of his family he brought with him. o Tiberius was criticised for not going to quell the revolts himself, however this could have caused dangerous instability back in Rome. Tacitus suggests it was probably wise, as “if the emperor were treated contemptuously… no expedient was left.” o

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Changing role of the princeps under the Julio-Claudian rulers: Tiberius, Gaius (Caligula), Claudius, Nero The main weakness of the principate was that its success depended on the character and behaviour of the princeps. Tiberius  Tiberius was a reluctant princeps but wisely tried to follow the policies and practices of Augustus, giving the Roman world peace and prosperity for another 20 years.  There were no significant changes in the style of Augustan rule. Tiberius was not a radical visionary or a revolutionary innovator, aiming to maintain Augustus’ conservative elements. His preign was marked by: o Cooperation between princeps and Senate as well as restraint in the exercise of power. o Careful and efficient administration of Rome, the empire and control of the army.  Tiberius has many positive qualities revealed in Annals, despite Tacitus’ attempt to blacken his character. o He had a firm sense of the duty of a ruler and respected traditions. o Behaved stoically, unperturbed at times of personal grief. He was courteous and slow to anger. o Was not deceived by pretence and hated excessive servility, preferring those who spoke their mind. o Believed in advancement for merit and was frugal with public money. o Though he was known for his austerity, he was prepared to spend state funds on worthy causes.  However, he was feared and hated by most of the senators due to his blunt and serious manner, lack of personal charm, his cryptic way of speaking and refusal to accept additional honours. o Tacitus claimed he had “a natural inscrutability” and was scheming, manipulative and malicious. He also refers to his cruelty and his arrogance. o An example of his conservative approach included his desire to strengthen not expand the empire.  Some policies did not endear him to the public such as cutback in public expenditures affecting buildings and games and his concentration of the Praetorian Guard on the outskirts of Rome aroused suspicion.  The factors that contributed most to the general condemnation of him were the increase in treason trials, treatment of the family of Germanicus and retirement of the Capri and reliance on Sejanus. His relationship with the senate began to deteriorate.  Syme: “Compelled to honour the precedents set by Augusts… Tiberius was the victim of Augustus.”  Unlike other emperors, Tiberius did not encourage a personality cult, and did not propagate coinage with depictions of his impactful rule. When he was featured on coins, it was in a non-idealised style.  The view ancient writers pass down is of a man who tried to hide his evil nature, which is alleged to have come about after the death of his son. However, the principal written sources come from Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio which are overwhelmingly critical. o Tacitus’ view is coloured by his pro-republican perspective and moral purpose in writing history. o Suetonius’ perspective is coloured by his preference for court gossip and scandal. o Scullard, a modern historian is unwilling to accept the overwhelmingly negative versions of the principate however accepts the deficiencies in Tiberius’ personality such as his morose temperament.

Gaius/Caligula  Gaius was Tiberius’ grandnephew in the “prime of early manhood” (Suetonius) when he died in AD37. o Gaius was the youngest and only surviving son of Agrippina the Elder and Germanicus. Germanicus had been Tiberius’ original heir but he died in Syria. Gaius spent time with his parents in the army where he was a much-loved mascot. o At 19 he was taken to Capri to live with Tiberius away from politics, and does not seem to have been given training to assume greater responsibility. He won the support of Macro, the Praetorian Prefect who succeeded Sejanus.  When Tiberius appeared to be dying Macro organised messages to be sent to generals and provincial governors, supposedly ordering Tiberius to be smothered to hasten his death and help Caligula. o Agreeing with Tacitus saying Macro and Tiberius were well aware of his faults, Suetonius notes even in the early days “Caligula could not control his natural brutality.” o However, when Macro declared him princeps, Suetonius says “it seemed to the Roman people… like a dream come true” since he was the son of the popular Germanicus. o When he arrived in the Senate, it was unanimous in its conferment on him of absolute power and declared Tiberius’ will for his grandson to be joint heir to be invalid.  Unlike Augustus and Tiberius who gained their powers gradually and for limited periods, Caligula gained his all at once for life. He made no effort to disguise his power and moved further towards despotism after the first few months of his reign where he wisely attempted to conciliate the senatorial nobility.  After he recovered from an illness, he appeared a changed person, becoming more reckless, less restrained and carried out numerous acts of cruelty, tyranny and extravagance. o This extended to senators, equites and the Roman people as well as his own family. o He killed Tiberius Gemellus, his father in law, brother in law Lepidus and even Macro(?). o He supposedly “preserved his uncle Claudius mainly as the butt of practical jokes.” (Suetonius)  According to sources, he enjoyed organising lingering ways of death, devising methods of provoking people at gladiatorial games (which he reinstated) and closed the granaries to starve people. He focused particularly on “devising wickedly ingenious ways of raising funds” from the people when he found himself “bankrupt from his extravagant lifestyle.”  He insisted on being treated as a god, replacing heads of Greek statues to his own likeness and established a priesthood to supervise his own worship.  Despite his erratic and autocratic behaviour, the frontiers remained secure, the provinces were well administered and magistrates still carried out their roles. However, his alienation of most groups in society led to several assassination plots and eventually was murdered at the Palatine games by a tribune of the Praetorian Guard. The senators were determined to restore the republic. Claudius  As Caligula had no offspring, his closest relatives were his uncle Claudius and the infant nephew Nero. After Caligula’s murder, Claudius was found by guardsmen who pressed him to accept imperial power. They then appeared before the senate who had been unaware and discussing the successor. After some resistance, they conferred the imperial title on him.  Though he claimed a strong imperial pedigree he had suffered from a form of palsy, however he was not the idiot of tradition being made aware early on of his

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inferiority especially in comparison to his brother Germanicus. Thus, he devoted himself to his studies and became a prolific scholar. o Apparently Antonia considered her son “a monster” and Suetonius writes that he was “so troubled by various diseases that he grew dull witted and had little physical strength. Apart from his little physical strength, he is alleged to have a series of other major character faults. o Sources state he had no mind of his own, no original ideas and was easily taken in by others. Tacitus states he “continually changed his mind according to whatever advice he had heard last” and that his “likes and dislikes were all suggested and dictated to him.” o Ancient sources however paint a very negative view of political aspects of Claudius’ rule, Tacitus referring to his “sluggish uxoriousness” although Wiedemann warns that this is “a topos of literary invective.” o Revised modern views present the personal reprehensibility of the emperors as Tacitus’ literary constructs, and perhaps Claudius’s demeanour was exaggerated to be deemed harmless and escape the attention of men such as Sejanus and Gaius. Despite being hesitant to accept the role of princeps, upon assuming power he made every effort to appeal to all groups in society. His policies were rational, balanced and often forward thinking. o He gained the continuing support of the Praetorian Guard by making annual donations to each. o Appealed to the urban plebs by providing plentiful gladiatorial shows and celebrating the Secular Games 64 years after Augustus, which even Suetonius concedes his responsibility. o Initially he had the support of the nobilities as he payed them respect and broke off treason trials, promising immunity for those involved in the conspiracy of Caligula’s murder. o He expanded the empire where he thought was appropriate and was willing to assimilate provinces. o He was polite and conciliatory to foreign nobles, and took a serious interest to the law. He was aware the principate needed to be modified since the definition of senatorial and imperial authority were vague and the running of the empire had become even more complex. He was, like Augustus, conservative and knew that a centralised autocracy would involve slow progress. He has been condemned by the sources for developing an imperial bureaucracy in which able and efficient freedmen owed their loyalty to him rather than the state, beyond the Senate’s jurisdiction. He also went against convention by allowing his domineering and self-seeking wife Agrippina rule. Many of works produced after his death sought to denigrate his rule, often for personal reasons of revenge such as Seneca, however following the denigration of Nero’s reign an early reassessment of Claudius began under the Flavian emperors and he began to be considered in a new, more positive light. Modern historians have paid greater attention to epigraphic, numismatic and archaeological evidence which has also led to a more positive interpretation of Claudius’ rule.

Nero In 51, Nero, a true Julian, was named Princeps Iuventutis and by 52 he was married to Octavia. Also in 51, Agrippina had Claudius remove the commanders of the Praetorian Guard unifying the command under Sextus Afranius Burrus was “fully aware whose initiative was behind his appointment.” (Tacitus)

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He was hailed as imperator at the Praetorian barracks after Claudius’ death and appeared in the Senate House to receive appropriate honours and power. The Senate suppressed the will of Cluadius probably as it implied equality of Nero and Britannicus. In the following year, many people who threatened his rule was killed. Of Burrus and Seneca: “These two men… were equally influential.” While these men guided Nero, the first five years of his reign appear to have been generally competent although Miriam Griffin believes there is not enough evidence to suggest Seneca had a major political influence on Nero apart from the first year. By 55, Agrippina began losing control over Nero who found his overbearing mother intolerable. He decided to kill her, though his initial plan in 59 failed. Agrippina eventually faced death courageously. Her son sent a letter to the Senate justifying her death with accusation of fictitious crimes. From this time, Nero “plunged into the wildest improprieties, which vestiges of respect for her mother… impeded.” (Tacitus) Between 62 and 68 reasonable government was replaced with tyranny as Seneca and Burrus both lost control over him and he became under the influence of Poppaea, his lover then wife. When Burrus died, Seneca lost his influence and the vicious Tigellinus replaced him as prefect. He encouraged Nero’s cruelty and debauchery, often participating with him. o Degraded the principate by displaying his artistic interests and passions for Greek things in public o Financed his personal escapades by forcing the people and provinces to pay more taxes and confiscating their property. o Continued the killing of members of the imperial family. o After the Great Fire that destroyed a large part of Rome in 64, he embarked on a ferocious attack on Christian that the Roman citizens were eventually sicked by his brutality. o Tigellinus carried out a savage reprisal against the ranks of the old nobility after an attempted assassination of Nero. o Nero didn’t care about the army and troops began to hate him, especially after the famous general Corbulo and the commanders of Upper and Lower Germany were ordered to commit suicide. Opposition to Nero began building up in Rome and the western provinces. He had alienated the upper class, neglected the army and lost the support of the Praetorian Guard, all of which had formed the support for the principate. Nero was declared a public enemy and committed suicide at 31, ending the JulioClaudian dynasty. To some, he was a popular and effective ruler, at least for the early part of his reign. To others he was self-indulgent, self-obsessed mediocrity who nearly brought Rome and the empire to ruin. o His first five or seven years is associated with the phrase quinquennium Neronis with the implicit understanding that this was a ...