Theory, Design, and Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles PDF

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Theory, Design, and Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Theory, Design, and Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles A. R. Jha, Ph.D. MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. and are used with permission. The Math- Works does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises...

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Theory, Design, and Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Theory, Design, and Applications of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

A. R. Jha, Ph.D.

MATLAB® and Simulink® are trademarks of The MathWorks, Inc. and are used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® and Simulink® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® and Simulink® software.

CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper Version Date: 20160819 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-1542-3 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Jha, A. R., author. Title: Theory, design, and applications of unmanned aerial vehicles / A. R. Jha. Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press / Taylor & Francis Group, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016019916 | ISBN 9781498715423 Subjects: LCSH: Drone aircraft--Design and construction. Classification: LCC UG1242.D7 J53 2016 | DDC 623.74/69--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016019916 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com

Contents xiii

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xix

P r e Fa c e chaPter 1

historical asPects Ve h i c l e s

oF

Unmanned aerial

Introduction Typical Physical Parameters of UAVs for Commercial Applications Various Categories of Unmanned Vehicles UAVs for Border Patrol Operations Chronological History of UAVs and Drones UAVs Operated by Various Countries for Surveillance and Reconnaissance Comments Deployment Restriction on UAVs FAA Designations and Legal Regulations Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Civilian Applications of UAVs Pizza Delivery by Small UAVs or Drones Drone Deployments for Miscellaneous Commercial Applications Drones for Commercial Aerial Survey Applications Drones for Remote Sensing Applications Drones for Motion Picture and Filmmaking Drones for Sports Events Role of Drones in Domestic Policing Activities

1 1 2 3 3 6 10 11 11 12 15 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 18

v

vi

C o n t en t s

Drones for Oil, Gas, and Mineral Exploration and Production UAVs for Disaster Relief Activities Drones for Scientific Research in Atmospheric Environments Classic Example of Search and Rescue Mission UAVs or Drones for Animal Conservation Functions Drones for Maritime Patrol Activities Drones for Cooperative Forest Fire Surveillance Missions NASA Contribution to Firefighting Technology Cooperative Forest Fire Surveillance Using a Team of Micro-UAVs Real-Time Algorithm Development of a Cooperative Surveillance Strategy Critical Aspects of Fire Monitoring Scheme Based on Autonomous Concept Potential Algorithms for Fire Monitoring Purposes Conclusions on Forest Fire Surveillance Concept Summary References chaPter 2

U n m a n n e d a e r i a l Ve h i c l e s a P P l i c at i o n s

For

18 19 19 20 20 21 22 22 24 25 28 29 38 43 44 45

m i l i ta r y

Introduction Various Categories of Unmanned Vehicles for Combat Activities UAVs for Combat Operations Functional Capabilities of the GCS Operator Description of GCS Operating Requirements for UAV Operator or Pilot Location of GCS Role of Portable UAV GCS Operator Responsibility for Payload Control Role of Sensors aboard the UAV Role of Lynx Advanced Multichannel Radar Locations of GCSs Landing of Fire Scout Helicopter Deployment of Commercial-off-the-Shelf Components for the Control Station GCS for Each UAV Category Next Generation of GCS Impact of Human Factors on Control Station Weapons Best Suited for High-Value Targets Combat UAVs Operated by Various Countries

47 47 48 49 50 50 55 56 57 59 59 60 61 63 63 63 64 66 66 67

C o n t en t s

vii

BAe UCAV: European UAV 68 BAe System Taranis: British UAV 69 Dassault nEUROn (European UCAV) 69 Rustom (Warrior): Indian UAV 70 Israeli UAVs 72 UAVs Operational in the United States 73 MQ-1 Predator Series 74 General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper 74 Guizhou Sparrow Hawk II (Chinese UAV) 75 Guizhou Soar Eagle Chinese UAV 76 Miscellaneous UAVs Designed and Developed by U.S. Companies 77 Smallest UAV Developed by NRL (USA) 77 U.S. UAVs for Space Applications 78 Classification of Small UAVs 78 RQ-7 Shadow UAV Developed by AAI Corporation (USA) 79 UAV for Maritime Surveillance 79 Miniaturized Components for Synthetic Aperture Radars 80 Miniature Sensors for Reconnaissance Missions by Small UAVs 80 Uncooled Thermal Imaging Camera for Small UAVs 81 Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar Surveillance 81 Miscellaneous Compact Sensors for Tier-1 and Tier-2 UAVs 82 Data Link Types 82 NANOSAR-C 83 Operating Modes 83 Image Processing and Exploitation 84 System Performance Parameters 84 Options Available 84 Hunter–Killer UAVs for Battlefield Applications 84 Autonomy of Hunter–Killer Platforms (MQ-9) 87 Role of Micro Air Vehicles 88 Technical Specifications for Tier-1, Tier-2, and Tier-3 MAVs 88 Wasp III MAV 89 Raven RQ-11 B MAV 90 Puma AE MAV 91 RQ-16 A T-Hawk 92 Small Tactical Munitions, Miniaturized Electronics, and Latest Component Technology for Future MAVs 94 Unmanned Ground Vehicles 96 Role of Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle in Counterterrorism 97 Qualifications and Practical Experience for UAV Operators 99 Summary 100 References 101

viii chaPter 3

C o n t en t s

e l e c t r o - o P t i c a l , r a d i o - F r e q U e n cy, a n d electronic comPonents For Unmanned a e r i a l Ve h i c l e s

Introduction RF Components for UAV and UCAV Sensors RF and Microwave Passive Components Synthetic Aperture Radar, a Premium Sensor for UAVs NANO-SAR Performance Parameters RF Components for Reconnaissance and Surveillance Receivers Connectors and Cables for Tactical Data Link Data Security Semiactive Passive Microwave Components for UAVs Semiconductor-Based Limiters Ferrite RF Limiters Yttrium-Iron-Garnet-Tunable Filters Working Principle of a Magnetically Tunable Filter Solid-State Tunable Oscillators for UAV Applications Reconnaissance and Surveillance Receivers Low-Noise MMIC Amplifiers Performance Parameters of MMIC Amplifiers for Deployment in the Next Generation of UCAVs Reliability and Structural Integrity of the Transistors Used in MMIC Amplifiers Electro-Optical Sensors for UAVs Lasers and Their Critical Roles in UAVs Laser Seeker for UAV Applications Laser Illuminator Laser Ranging System for Precision Weapon Delivery Electro-Optical Guided Missile IR Lasers to Counter the IR Missile Threat Diode-Pumped Solid-State IR Lasers Other Types of Lasers Available but Maybe Not Suitable for UAV Applications Space Communication Laser System Employing Rare Earth Materials Forward-Looking Infrared Sensors Forward-Looking Infrared Sensors for UAV Applications IRST Sensor for UAV Deployment Performance Capabilities and Limitations of IRST Sensors Types of Infrared Detectors Description and Performance Capabilities of Most Popular IR Detectors Photon Detectors

103 103 104 104 105 107 107 108 109 109 110 110 111 112 112 114 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 124 124 125 125 126 128 129 130 131 131 137 137 137

C o n t en t s

Low-Power, High-Speed IR Detectors Optical Detectors IR and Television Cameras Performance Capabilities of Various Gyros for UAV Navigation Most Popular Gyros Deployed by Aviation Industry Performance Summary for Various Types of Gyros Summary References chaPter 4

UaV n aV i g at i o n s y s t e m a n d F l i g h t c o ntro l sys te m c riti ca l req Uire m e nt s

Introduction UAV Navigation System Algorithms Algorithms Appropriate for SINS Functioning Strapdown Inertial Navigation System (SINS) Algorithms Development and Experimental Evaluation of Prototype UAV Navigation System SINS Correction Algorithm Requirements of UAV’s Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) Critical Functions of AFCS Critical Functions of the AFCS Principal Design Objective of the AFCS Definitions of Operating Modes and Functions Associated with Modes Essential Components or Subsystems of AFCS Critical Functions of AFCS Software for AFCS Properties of Specialized Software Basic Performance Specification Requirements for the AFCS Module Indication of Emergency Conditions from AFCS Algorithms Programming and Adjustment of AFCS UAV Fault Detection and Isolation Kalman Filtering Description of Various Errors Calculation of Estimated Error of UAV Speed in SINS Algorithms Role of Compensation Circuit Filter in the Joint SINS/ SNS System Operation Extended Kalman Filtering Technique Summary References

ix 138 141 141 141 142 142 143 146

147 147 149 149 150 151 153 154 156 157 158 158 158 160 161 161 162 162 163 163 164 172 176 177 181 182 187 189

x chaPter 5

C o n t en t s

P ro PU l s i o n sys te m s soUrces For drones

and and

electrical UaV s

Introduction Power Sources for Commercial Drones, Tactical Drones, and Minidrones Electrical Power Sources for Commercial and Minidrones Electrical Power Sources for Nano- and Micro-UAVs Battery Suitability Compact or Miniaturized High-Capacity Batteries for Commercial Drones Fuel Cells for Heavy-Duty UAVs Power Sources for Drones, Electronic Drones, and Micro-UAVs Propulsion Sources for Electronic Drones and Quadcopters Suitability and Deployment of Appropriate Sources for UAV Propulsion Propulsion Systems for Micro-UAVs and Commercial Electronic Drones Future Market Forecast for Hybrid or Electronic Drones Propulsion Systems for Full-Size UAVs and UCAVs Categories of Propulsion Systems Distinction between Combustion Turbines and Jet Engines Propulsion Systems for UCAVs Summary References chaPter 6

U n m a n n e d a U t o n o m o U s Ve h i c l e te c h n o l o g y

Introduction Example of UAV with Autonomous Capability Encouraging Signs of Autonomous Capability in the Auto Industry Smart Materials for UAVs Smart Components for UAVs Gyros for UAV Applications Motion Controllers for UAV Application Military Role of Unmanned Autonomous Vehicle Role of Electronic Switch Modules Role of Critical Miscellaneous Components Integrated Simulation Capability of UAV Description and Performance of Sensors aboard Autonomous UAVs Propulsion Systems for Unmanned Autonomous Vehicles

191 191 192 192 193 195 199 201 207 207 210 210 211 213 214 214 216 219 222 223 223 224 225 226 227 227 230 231 232 233 234 243 246

C o n t en t s

Description of Propulsion Systems That Could Be Deployed for Autonomous Vehicles Specific Propulsion Systems Best Suited for Autonomous Vehicles Summary References chaPter 7

s U r V i Va b i l i t y Ve h i c l e s

oF

247 247 249 251

Unmanned aUtono m oUs

Introduction Critical Issues and Factors Responsible for UAV Survival Stealthy Fuselage Features and Control Surfaces Smart Optical Materials Stealth Technology Vital for UAV Survival RCS Reduction Techniques by Vehicle Structural Design Concepts Techniques Currently Available for RCS Reduction Latest Paints Best Suited for RCS Reduction IR Signature Estimation and Reduction Techniques Thermal Expressions Used in the Calculation of IR Signature Sample Calculation IR Radiation Intensity (IR Signatures) at Various Elements of the UAV IR Signature due to Aircraft Skin Temperature IR Energy Generated by Various Aircraft Elements MAM Technology for Small and Lightweight Munitions Specific Details on MAM Technology 3D Printing Technology Potential Applications of Pyros Munitions Potential Benefits of AMT Summary References index

xi

253 253 253 254 255 256 256 259 261 261 262 263 263 267 267 269 269 272 273 274 278 280 283

Foreword This book comes at a time when Western countries are facing multiple international crises such as bogus claims from China on the small islands in the South China Sea, India’s northern state of Arunachal Pradesh, military occupation by China of the disputed Spratly Islands in South China that are claimed by six Asian countries, and violation of Vietnam drilling rights in the coastal region very close to Vietnam. The disputed region has deposits of oil, gas, and minerals where China has illegally occupied, leading to a brief military conflict. It should be noted that Communist China had illegally occupied Tibet in 1954 because the region has unlimited deposits of rare earth materials that are widely used in motors and generators, electric and hybrid electric automobiles, military jet engines, commercial jet transports, and various medical devices and equipment. In addition, the Middle East refugee crisis poses serious security and financial crises particularly for the United States and European countries due to unstable political and volatile situations in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Syria, and other Arab countries. According to the latest international news, communist China has illegally developed landing strips in the South China Sea closer to the Philippines for its jet fighters and bombers in spite of objections by the United States, UN, and Southeast Asian nations. China has the worst track record for military conflicts with its neighbors including Russia, Vietnam, India, and other small countries like x iii

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Philippines. Because of the likelihood of military conflict between China and Southeast Asian nations, the United States and European countries might be involved due to security agreements with some Asian nations. There is a great danger in dealing with China because of its aggressive and assertive behavior. Furthermore, Russian military aggression in Syria and Ukraine poses a serious threat to North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries. I am extremely impressed with the author’s justification for the development of UAVs in order to maintain international peace and security in the troubled regions of this world. The author has summarized the potential performance capabilities and unique aerodynamic features of the UAV unmatched by any vehicle to this date. Its performance capabilities and unique design features have been discussed in seven distinguished chapters, each dealing with a specific topic. This particular aircraft offers quick reaction military capabilities with minimum cost and complexity and no loss of pilot. This vehicle requires minimum maintenance and a small support group. Comprehensive studies performed by the author indicate that autonomous capability is possible using high-speed computers, the latest and efficient algorithms, state-of-the-art RF and optical sensors, and high-resolution side-looking radar (SAR) for precision target tracking in the extended forward-looking sector. The author has described briefly the aerodynamic design concepts for significant reduction in RF and IR signatures to avoid enemy radar detection and IR missile attack. Comprehensive studies performed by the author confirm that the latest RF and EO sensors aboard the UAV will provide optimum aircraft safety and survivability while executing the assigned combat missions. Furthermore, the unique aerodynamic design features described herein will provide optimum vehicle performance and survivability with no danger to the platform and the sophisticated EO and IR sensors aboard the vehicle. The author has performed several trade-off studies to evaluate techniques for significant reduction in RF and IR signatures of the vehicle and the pod-mounted RF and IR sensors. Additive manufacturing technology and the three-dimensional printing concept have been evaluated by the author for the development of pod-mounted sensors and munitions to achieve minimum weight, size, and RF signature. As far as reduction of IR signature is concerned, the author

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has proposed a unique concept for the exit of hot exhaust gases from jet engines with no compromise to engine performance. It should be noted that the proposed design concepts for hot exhaust gases for the engine have no impact on the cost and endurance of the vehicle. The author placed heavy emphasis on vehicle survivability and safety, particularly when the aircraft performs as a hunter–killer UAV and is required to penetrate heavily defended enemy territory. The author has maintained perfect balance between the number of weapons carried aboard the aircraft and the endurance requirements under assigned military missions. Any imbalance would impact not only the vehicle endurance capability but also the UAV ability to complete the assigned mission in the allocated time frame. The author feels that deployment of smart materials with optimum emissivity, direction of hot exhaust gases, reduction of engine thrust without affecting the engine performance, and optimum temperature control of the hot exhaust gases may lead to significant reduction in the IR signatures of the UAV. IR signature studies undertaken by the author indicate that small IR signatures are contributed by the fuselage surfaces, control surfaces, and skin temperatures. However, the maximum IR signature is contributed by the jet engine hot exhaust gases. Essentially, the IR signature is strictly a function of percentage of the total IR energy over a specific IR spectral bandwidth, which is dependent on the engine tail pipe temperature. The studies further confirm that the IR signature will be maximum during afterburner operations and minimum under cruise conditions. This means that to minimize the IR signature, the UAV aircraft must be operated under cruise vehicle speeds. Stealth features of this vehicle have been given top priority to ensure optimum survivability and safety of the UAV platform. The UAV is equipped with high-resolution forward-looking radar, forwardlooking infrared (FLIR), side-looking radar (SAR) with precision tracking capability, EO sensors aboard the vehicle, and podmounted laser-based compact missiles such as Hellfire missiles with low RCSs. The vehicle is fully equipped with compact high-resolution scopes, RF data links ...