Trait Theory by Raymond Cattell PDF

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Trait Theory by Raymond B. Cattell Cattell’s goal in his study of personality was to predict how a person will behave in response to a given stimulus situation. Cattell made no reference to changing or modifying behavior from undesirable to desirable or from abnormal to normal, which had been the approach of some other personality theorists. These more clinically oriented theorists based their work on case studies of patients who sought a psychologist’s services because they were unhappy or emotionally disturbed and wanted to change. In contrast, Cattell’s subjects were so-called normal people. His aim was to study their personality, not to treat it. He believed it was impossible, or at least unwise, to attempt to change a personality before understanding fully what was to be modified. Cattell’s objective measurements of personality used three primary assessment techniques, which he called L-data (life records), Q-data (questionnaires), and T-data (tests). Life records (L-data) - The L-data technique involves observers’ ratings of specific behaviors exhibited by people in real-life settings such as a classroom or office. For example, observers might record frequency of absence from work, grades at school, conscientiousness in performing job duties, emotional stability on the soccer field, or sociability in the office. Questionnaires (Q-data) - The Q-data technique relies on questionnaires. Whereas the L-data technique calls for observers to rate the research subjects, the Q-data technique requires subjects to rate themselves. Cattell recognized the limitations of Q-data. First, some research participants may have only superficial self-awareness, so their answers will not reflect the true nature of their personality. Second, even if research participants do know themselves well, they may not want researchers to know them. Therefore, they may deliberately falsify their responses. Because of these problems, Cattell warned that Q-data must not automatically be assumed to be accurate. Personality tests (T-data) - The T-data technique involves the use of what Cattell called “objective” tests, in which a person responds without knowing what aspect of behavior is being evaluated. These tests circumvent the Q-data’s shortcomings by making it difficult for a subject to know precisely what a test is measuring. If you cannot guess what the experimenter is trying to find out, then you cannot distort your responses to conceal your traits. For example, if you were shown an inkblot, you probably would not be able to predict whether the researcher’s interpretation of your response revealed that you were conservative, relaxed, adventurous, or apprehensive. Allport identified more than 4,000 words in the English language that could be used to describe personality traits, while this approach was good at identifying different types of traits, it is difficult to use. Many of these traits, for example, are highly similar, making it difficult to distinguish some traits from others. Such ambiguity also makes it difficult to study these personality traits. Raymond Cattell analysed Allport's list and whittled it down to 171 characteristics, mostly by eliminating terms that were redundant or uncommon. He then used a statistical technique known as factor analysis to identify traits that are related to one another. With this method, he was able to whittle his list to 16 key personality factors

Cattell favored two forms of factor analysis: the R technique and the P technique. The R technique involves collecting large amounts of data from a group of people. Correlations among all the scores are made to determine personality factors or traits. The P technique involves collecting a large amount of data from a single subject over a long period. Factor analysis involves assessing relationship between traits to determine the common factors. Let’s say introversion and guilt-proneness has a high correlation, it will be combined to form a single dimension or factor and he referred to these factors as traits. 

Traits - derived by the method of factor analysis, that is relatively permanent parts of the personality. Cattell defined traits as mental elements of personality. Only when we know someone’s traits can we predict how that person will behave in a given situation. He classified traits in several ways: 1. Common traits - A common trait is one that is possessed by everyone to some degree. Intelligence, extraversion, and gregariousness are examples of common traits. Everyone has these traits, but some people have them to a greater extent than others. 2. Unique traits - those aspects of personality shared by few other people. Unique traits are particularly apparent in our interests and attitudes. For example, one person may have a consuming interest in genealogy, whereas another may be passionately interested in Civil War battles or baseball or Chinese martial arts.

3. Ability traits - determine how efficiently we will be able to work toward a goal. Intelligence is an ability trait; our level of intelligence will affect the ways in which we strive for our goals. 4. Temperament traits - describe the general style and emotional tone of our behavior; for example, how assertive, easy-going, or irritable we are. These traits affect the ways we act and react to situations. 5. Dynamic traits – driving forces of our behaviour, they define our motivation, interests, and ambitions. Cattell believed that a personality theory that failed to consider the impact of dynamic, or motivating, forces is incomplete, like trying to describe an engine but failing to mention the type of fuel on which it runs. 

Ergs - The word erg derives from the Greek word ergon, which means work or energy. Cattell used erg to denote the concept of instinct or drive. Ergs are the innate energy source or driving force for all behaviors, the basic units of motivation that direct us toward specific goals. Ergs are goals created because of hunger, thirst etc. The organism is motivated to get food when hungry. These are called ergs. • anger • protection • appeal • security • curiosity • self-assertion • disgust • self-submission • gregariousness • sex • hunger

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Sentiment (or SEMS – Socially Shaped Ergic Manifolds) - is an environmental-mold source trait because it derives from external social and physical influences. A sentiment is a pattern of learned attitudes that focuses on an important aspect of life, such as a person’s community, spouse, occupation, religion, or hobby.

Both ergs and sentiments motivate behavior, but there is a vital difference between them. Because an erg is a constitutional trait, it is a permanent structure of the personality. It may strengthen or weaken but it cannot disappear. A sentiment, because it results from learning, can be unlearned and can disappear so that it is no longer important to a person’s life.

6. Surface traits - Surface traits are personality characteristics that correlate with one another but do not constitute a factor because they are not determined by a single source. For example, several behavioral elements such as anxiety, indecision, and irrational fear combine to form the surface trait labelled neuroticism. Thus, neuroticism does not derive from a single source. Because surface traits are composed of several elements, they are less stable and permanent. 7. Source traits – are unitary personality factors that are much more stable and permanent. Each source trait gives rise to some aspect of behavior. Source traits are those individual factors derived from factor analysis that combine to account for surface traits. Constitutional traits originate in biological conditions but are not necessarily innate. For example, alcohol intake can lead to behaviors such as carelessness, talkativeness, and slurred speech. Factor analysis would indicate that these characteristics are source traits. Environmental-mold traits - derive from influences in our social and physical environments. These traits are learned characteristics and behaviors that impose a pattern on the personality. The behavior of a person reared in an impoverished inner-city neighbourhood is molded differently from the behavior of a person reared in upper-class luxury. A career military officer shows a different pattern of behavior from a jazz musician. Thus, we see that Cattell recognized the interaction between personal and situational variables.

After more than two decades of intensive factor-analytic research, Cattell (1965) identified 16 source traits as the basic factors of personality. These factors are best known in the form in which they are most often used, in an objective personality test called the Sixteen Personality Factor (16 PF) Questionnaire. Cattell presented the traits in bipolar form, and, as you can see, the personality characteristics associated with these traits are expressed in words we are likely to use in everyday conversation when describing our friends and ourselves. No doubt you can tell at a glance whether you score high, low, or somewhere in between on these basic personality factors.

A B C E F G H I L M N O Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Source traits / Factors Warmth Reasoning Emotional Stability Dominance Liveliness Rule Consciousness Social Boldness Sensitivity Vigilance Abstractedness Privateness Apprehension Openness to Change Self-Reliance Perfectionism Tension

Descriptions Low scorers High scorers Reserved Low in intelligence Less emotionally stable Submissive Serious Expedient Timid, shy Tough minded Trusting Practical Straightforward Self-assured Conservative Group-dependent Uncontrolled Relaxed

Outgoing High in intelligence Emotionally stable Dominant Happy-go-lucky Conscientious Bold, adventurous Tender minded Suspicious Imaginative Shrewd Apprehensive Radical Self-sufficient Controlled Tense

https://openpsychometrics.org/tests/16PF.php

The Influences of Heredity and Environment Cattell showed great interest in the relative influences of heredity and environment in shaping personality. He investigated the importance of hereditary and environmental factors by statistically comparing similarities found between twins reared in the same family, twins reared apart, non-twin siblings reared in the same family, and non-twin siblings reared apart. Thus, he was able to estimate the extent to which differences in traits could be attributed to genetic or to environmental influences. The results of his analyses showed that for some traits, heredity plays a major role. For example, Cattell’s data suggest that 80 percent of intelligence (Factor B) and 80 percent of timidity versus boldness (Factor H) can be accounted for by genetic factors. Cattell concluded that overall, one-third of our personality is genetically based, and two thirds is determined by social and environmental influences.

Stages of Personality Development

1. Infancy - birth to age 6, is the major formative period for personality. The child is influenced by parents and siblings and by the experiences of weaning and toilet training. Social attitudes develop along with the ego and the superego, feelings of security or insecurity, attitudes toward authority, and a possible tendency to neuroticism. Cattell was not a follower of Freud’s, but he incorporated in his theory several Freudian ideas, namely, that the early years of life are crucial in personality formation, and that oral and anal conflicts can affect personality.

2. Childhood – ages 6 to 14, the childhood stage of personality formation, there are few psychological problems. This stage marks the beginning of a trend toward independence from parents and an increasing identification with peers. 3. Adolescence – ages 14 to 23, a more troublesome and stressful age. Emotional disorders and delinquency may be evident as young people experience conflicts centered on the drives for independence, self-assertion, and sex. 4. Maturity – ages 23 to 50, is generally a productive, satisfying time in terms of career, marriage, and family situations. The personality becomes less flexible, compared with earlier stages, and thus emotional stability increases. Cattell found little change in interests and attitudes during this period. 5. Late Maturity- ages 50 to 65, involves personality developments in response to physical, social, and psychological changes. Health, vigor, and physical attractiveness may decline and the end of life may be in view. During this phase, people re-examine their values and search for a new self. 6. Old Age - ages 65 and above, involves adjustments to different kinds of losses—the death of spouses, relatives, and friends; a career lost to retirement; loss of status in a culture that worships youth; and a pervasive sense of loneliness and insecurity....