Unit 08 - Lecture notes 9-10 PDF

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Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language

Elements of Thought **Concept: is the mental representation of an object, event, or idea.

**Categories: Clusters of interrelated concepts. [Notes-- Larger groups of concepts based on their similarity to one another.]

Classical Categorization: This theory claims that objects or events are categorized according to a certain set of rules or by a specific set of features (Like a dictionary).

Graded Membership: the observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than others.

Sentence Verification Technique: psychologists have researched classical categorization using a behavioural measure and it’s a technique in which volunteers wait for a sentence to appear in front of them on the computer screen and respond as quickly as they can with a yes or no answer to statement such as "A sparrow is a bird"

Prototype: are mental representations of an average category member.

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language Semantic Network: An interconnected set of nodes (or concepts) and the links that join them to form a category. (Fig 8.3)

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Hierarchy: consists of a structure moving from general to very specific

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Basic-Level Category: which is located in the middle row of the diagram (where birds and fish are).

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Basic level categories are the term used most often in conversation

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They are easy to pronounce

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They are the level at which prototypes exist.

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They are the level at which most thinking occurs.

Superordinate Level: It is generally used when some is uncertain about an object or when he or she wished to group together a number of different examples from the basic-level category.

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Subordinate Level Category: it suggests that there is something special about this particular type of bird. It may also indicate that the speaker has expert level knowledge of the basic category and that using the more specific level is necessary to get her point across in the intended way.

Prototypes and Semantic Networks vs Specific Experiences: People tend to categorize based on specific exemplars they have seen rather than based on abstract list of symptoms. (Page: 320)

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language Symptoms of Lichen Planus: Purplish-colored lesions, or bumps with flat tops. Blisters, which becomes scabby after bursting thin white lines over the rash.

*Linguistic Relativity (or the Whorfian Hypothesis): The theory that the language we use determines how we understand (& categories) the world. [ Notes-The idea that differences in languages between cultures change the way members of those cultures actually perceive the world]

Culture Difference in Categorization: It seems that the cultural bias of Americans is to group based on a single object characteristics whereas the cultural bias of Japanese is to group based on how objects interact with their environment.

Problem Solving, Decision Making, & Judgement Problem Solving: means accomplishing a goal when the solution or the path to the solution is not clear.

Two Routes to Problem-Solving:

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language 

Algorithms: Problem-Solving strategies based on a series of rules. [Notes-- A slow, logical, and step by step solution to a problem based on a set of rules]

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Heuristics: Problem- Solving strategies that stem from prior experience and provide an educated guess as to what is the most likely solution. [Notes-- Relying on past experiences to make a quick and reasonable guess as to the problem's solution.]

Cognitive Obstacles: 

The Nine-Dot Problem: the goal is to connect all nine dots using only four straight lines and without lifting your pen or pencil off the paper.

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Functional Fixedness: The tendency to treat objects as only serving one function. (Example as fig 8.13)

Judgement & Decision Making also rely on Algorithms & Heuristics.

Representative Heuristic: Making judgements of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category. The Case of Linda: (Example)

Conjunction Fallacy: reflects the mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories (i.e. a member of the conjunction of two categories) is more likely than finding any members of one of the larger, general categories.

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language *The Availability Heuristic: Entails estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it comes to mind. (Page:329). We tend to look at the example that is available to us.

The Anchoring Effect: occurs when an individual attempt to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to keep (i.e. anchor) the response within a limited range. (Page:330)

Framing Effects: when the mere wording of a question has a biasing influence on our judgments or decision-making. (Leading the question)

Belief Perseverance: when an individual believes he or she has the solution to the problem or the correct answer for a question and will hold onto that belief even in the face of evidence against it.

Confirmation Bias: When an individual search for (or pays attention to) only evidence that will confirm his or her beliefs instead evidence that might disconfirm them.

Decision Making and the Paradox of Choice -- Page:333

Two different types of decision Makes:

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Maximizers: Thoroughly explore the pros and cons associated with every option in an effort to make the best possible choice.

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Satisficers: Do a very little research and simply choose the first option that fulfills some minimum set of criteria.

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Surprisingly, Studies suggest that SATISFICERS end up being happier with their choices than MAXIMIZERS.

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In a study of recent university graduates, MAXIMIZERS selected jobs that paid 20% more than selected by SATISFICERS but compared to the MAXIMIZERS, SATISFICERS still reported themselves as happier with the jobs they chose.

Language Paul Broca: physician, and heard of an interesting medical case. The patient had a hard time communicating and could not form a speech. This patient acquired a nickname "Tan," because it was one of the only sound he could reliably produce. The patient had Aphasia

*Aphasia: a language disorder caused by damage to the brain structures that support using and understanding language.

Broca Area: The region of the left frontal lobe that controls our ability to articulate speech sounds that compose words.

Broca's Aphasia: The damage to this area is known as this.

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language Carl Wernicke: developed a short book on hi study of different type of aphasia. He noted that his patient had trouble with language comprehension rather than language production. These patients had damage to posterior superior temporal gyrus (the back and top part of temporal lobe). It now known as Wernicke Area -- the area of the brain most associated with finding the meaning of words. (Damage to this area result is Wernicke Aphasia)

Language: as a form of communication that involves the use of spoken, written, or gestural symbols that are combined in a rule-based form. (Page:338)

Advantages provided by language: 1. Allows us to communicate about things that are not physically present. 2. Allows for creating symbols to represent completely novel concepts that may not even exist in reality. 3. Can be transferred from one generation to the next.

Language Productivity: The basic units of language permit an almost infinite number of combinations.

Phonemes: are the most basic of units of speech sounds. ("Test" consists of four phonemes in sequence: (/t/ /e/ /s/ /t/)

Morphemes: are the smallest meaningful units of a language. (Some Morphemes, like /plant/, are meaningful on their own.)

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language Semantics: is the study how people come to understand meaning from words.

Orthography: The visual representation of words.

Phonology: The speech-based representation of words.

Dyslexia: A particular deficits in reading that can occur in individuals who are otherwise of normal or above-average intelligence.

Syntax: the rules for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases and sentences.

Pragmatics: is the study of nonlinguistic elements of language use. (facial expression, Body language is an example through sarcastic statement)

Language Acquisition.

Other features of Infants that support Language Acquisition: 1. Infants prefer speech sound to other types of sounds. 2. Infants soon come to prefer home combinations that are common in the language they are exposed to. 3. Babies also soon come to prefer hearing nouns and verbs over other types of words.

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language Naming Explosion: Through infancy and toddlerhood, human learn so many words, so quickly, it qualifies as a type of explosion.

Fast Mapping: The ability to map words onto concepts or objects after only a single exposure.

Overgeneralization Errors: they reveal that children are not mimicking in responding to rewards for speaking correctly instead their mind is actively hunting for rules that we use to structure our language & taking advantage of opportunities to apply these rules to new situations

Sensitive Period: a time during childhood in which children brains are primed to develop language skill but this ability fades away at the age of seven.

Cross-Fostering: Placing a chimpanzee to be raised as a member of a human family.

Skeptical Concerns about Chimpanzee's Capacity for Language: a. No chimpanzee has ever used language to form a complex phrase b. No chimpanzee has transferred their knowledge of language to their children c. No chimpanzee has generated a new symbol as a way to make reference to an unfamiliar object or event- the productivity function of language. d. Working so closely with chimpanzee may compromise the objectivity of the researchers involved in chimpanzee language studies.

Unit- 8- Thoughts & Language Making Choices Video: 

When decided to make a decision, your memory system starts working

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Working memory relying on other aspects

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We make Difficult decision during emotional times

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Having too many things makes us wonder.

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Having too many option can be overwhelming and confusing

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The frontal lobes job is to make those decisions

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It has to do with your memory to properly evaluate each option.

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We often give up and go with our emotional reaction.

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Buyer remorse:

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Attention Filtering and making choices: although many options can be overwhelming we often considerably narrow down our choices.

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In restaurant making choices, diners may filter choices by focusing on…

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Grouping by similarity....