Unit 2 Notes PDF

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Unit 2 notes...

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•Information Processing Theory •Emphasis on ways that individuals actively take in, manipulate, and memorize information (cognitive processes in brain) •Analogy: Mind works like a basic computer •Just like computers have evolved over time, over the course of their lives, people gradually become more proficient and efficient at thinking •Further, with practice and use, some skills become automatized* (read below) •Both of which enable people to acquire more complex knowledge and skills! •Automaticity •Stroop Task •Sensory Memory ØSENSATION: your body’s physiological response to environmental stimuli Øpart of memory that holds unprocessed information for a very brief time Øoccurs prior to attention and perception (you sense a lot more than you actually pay attention to…) ØTwo parts: ØIconic memory (involves visual images) Øechoic memory (involves sounds) Ø

•Attention Øthe process of concentrating mental effort on a stimulus or mental event Øa limited resource, affected by: Ø number and complexity of stimuli ØOverarousal: too many things vying for attention makes it hard to focus ØUnderarousal: not enough stimulation leads to boredom and lack of focus ØMore complex/challenging content requires more attention resources ØPrior experiences, expectations, & knowledge affect how we interpret stimuli ØExplains why perceptions of similar sensory experiences differ between people ØTop-down vs bottom-up processing (see below and examples on next slides) •Working Memory Øholds information as it is being consciously considered and processed

ØThree parts: 1.Visuospatial Sketchpad 2.Phonological Loop 3.Episodic buffer ØAlso limited by capacity and duration Ø + 7 unrelated items Ø 5-20 seconds after rehearsal stops Ø Ø Ø Ø •Multitasking?? The limits of working memory also help to explain why multitasking is mostly a myth! • •Read explanation below, then watch and test it yourself with the video that follows on the next slide. • •Encoding in Long Term Memory Øactive processes involved with learningand memorizing information Øgetting information from working memory into long-term memory, where it is stored for future use ØLearning strategies usually necessary, BUT: ØSome are usually better than others ØEffectiveness also depends on context ØLTM is unlimited in capacity but subject to decay and interference (retro- and pro-active) Ø Ø • •Promoting Encoding (& Retrieval): Learning Strategies Several categories/types: 1)Rehearsal a)Maintenance (simple, verbatim repetition)

b)Elaborative (involves linking bits of info in some meaningful way– such as through mnemonic devices, acronyms, etc) 2)Chunking and other Organizationalstrategies (frames, outlines, concepts maps) 3)Elaboration (examples, analogies, self-explanations) 4)Self-Testing (but how and when matters) – •Three Types of Long Term Memories 1.Episodic (aka autobiographical): –Information from “episodes” of our own life –Exp: going to kindergarten, what you ate for dinner, going to that concert over the summer, spending time with your father, etc –Some are considered to be flashbulb* memories because they are very vivid, emotional, and “frozen in time” 2.Semantic: – Information that is not tied directly to our personal experiences. –exp: definitions, facts, historical events 3.Procedural : –Information about how to perform certain tasks –Exp: riding a bike, fixing a motor, solving an algebraic equation • •Three Types of Knowledge 1.Declarative knowledge: Information about personal and general facts. 2.Procedural knowledge: Information about how to perform tasks and skills. (consistent with procedural memory– literally how to do something) 3.Conditional knowledge: information about under what conditions information. –exps: when can you skim a reading and when do you need to be more careful? When do you apply a certain mathematical formula? when should you ask for help vs trying to do something yourself • •Central Executive Øcomponent of the human information processing system that oversees and regulates the flow of information throughout the system ØMetacognition (module 11):, thinking about one’s thought processes ØMetacognitive Self-regulation ØDirecting/controlling one’s thought processes ØInvolves 3 stages:

Øforethought (goal-setting and planning)) Øperformance (self-monitoring and motivation),and Øreflection (self-evaluating) Ø •Factors Affecting the Development and Use of Metacognition •Biological differences (including basic developmental trends) and possible neurological impairments •Our environment (especially family experiences): is it encouraged and/or modeled? •Individual characteristics (beliefs about the task, motivation, prior knowledge and experience, etc.) • •*Please Review the examples of Specific Strategies and Advice for Teaching Students Metacognition related to reading, writing, note-taking and studying provided in Module 11 (pp. 225-233) • •Module 12: What Is Transfer and Why Is It Important? •Transfer refers to the influence of prior knowledge, skills, strategies, or principles on new learning. (in short: can we apply what we learn to new situations?) •Three possibilities: 1.Positive*: Previous learning facilitates learning on new task. 2.Negative: previous learning hinders learning on new tasks. 3.Zero: previous learning has no effect on the performance of a new task. • • •Low-Road vs. High Road Transfer (Salomon and Perkins) •Low-Road transfer: •involves spontaneous, automatic transfer of extensively practiced skills with little need for reflective thinking. •consistent with the concept of automatization •more likely when new tasks are very similar •High-road transfer:

•involves purposely and consciously applying general knowledge, a strategy, or a principle learned in one situation to a different situation. •“mindful abstraction” •forward vs. backward reaching transfer (see below) •near and far transfer (see below) Forward-reaching : knowing a principle or strategy so well that you can apply it quickly and asily in future situations. Backward-reaching transfer: deliberately looking for strategies or principles learned in the past to solve a current problem or task. Near transfer: involves applying prior knowledge to new situations that are very similar to the learning context. (usually easier often what we have students do in class) Far transfer: applying prior knowledge to a context that is very different from the learning context. (generally harder but often more authentic– more like what happens in real life!)

•Do students transfer what they learn? (Why, when, or why not?) •Practicing skills alone does not lead to effective transfer! –practice should be reflective, deliberate and meaningful (vs. rote) –in other words–deep processing and conceptual understanding are what promotes transfer (so we need students to really think about what they are doing and learning– not just shallowing memorizing) •Students often have trouble spontaneously applying what they learned from one context to another –review the military vs medical problem stories on pp. 240-241 –even though the solutions are analogous, students have difficulty solving the second one –3 key skills needed for successful high-road transfer: recognition, abstraction, and mapping •Transfer may vary based on the domain (see Table 12.1 for examples) •So How can we Encourage Transfer? Help Students Develop Automaticity •Overlearning –even after you think you understand/know, keep practicing and challenge yourself to apply that knowledge in new ways! –BUT that does not mean we should completely delay exposure to complex content in order to focus on simple drill and practice!

–Teachers can allow students to occasionally use supplemental tools (like spell-check, calculators, etc) so that their mental resources can be reserved for more complex, higher-order thinking tasks •So How can we Encourage Transfer?:Promote Meaningful Learning •Assess students’ prior knowledge (note: we will revisit this important idea when we get to constructivist theories) –to know where to aim instructional level –to assess strengths/weaknesses –to identify and correct misconceptions –EXP: KWL charts! (see p. 245) •Model and encourage self-explanations and question-generation •Use manipulatives when possible •Make deliberate connections across content/contexts, incorporate worked-out examples, and teach using analogies •So How can we Encourage Transfer?:Teach Metacognitive Strategies •Explicitly teach metacognitive strategies and give students deliberate practice using them –e.g., require them to plan ahead, submit progress reports, evaluate and reflect on the effectiveness of their own strategies, etc –teach them the SQR4 methods, problem-solving strategies, etc Explicit teach deep-processing learning strategies –explain the difference between shallow (rote) and deep learning, and their effects on retention and transfer –require them to use deep learning strategies by actually designing assessments that require them (i.e., don’t just test for rote memorization– require explanations, novel application, creative applications, etc) •So How can we Encourage Transfer?Motivate students to value learning • •promote mastery goals and intrinsic motivation (**will be covered more extensively in next unit!**) •Try to foster individual and situational interests (share and encourage students to connect to content) •Avoid “seductive” (unnecessary) details, information, stimuli –might “feel” or “look” good but can detract from the more important information and make it harder for students to KNOW what to focus on and able to use deep processing... •

Several theories have been developed to explain how information from working memory is encoded and stored in long-term memory. They are: 1.Dual-coding theory: States that we remember information if it is encoded as both verbal and visual information. 2.Network theory: States that information is encoded in relation to other information. 1.Spreading activation: Accessing one concept can lead to activation of other related concepts in the network. 3.Schema theory: States that information contained within a script, or typical pattern of events, is easier to understand and encode. But LTM is still not perfect and subject to these problems/limitations: Decay: gradual loss over time, often associated with infrequent use. (My personal example: I took AP calculus in high school and got a “4” on my AP exam! But I haven’t used that content in decades, therefore I no longer remember how to do calculus… unfortunately. L Though research says I would probably pick-it-up more easily if I tried t learn it again, compared to someone who never learned it before) Interference: something gets in the way •Proactive interference (pro=forward) occurs when you cannot learn a new task because of an old task that had been learnt. When what we already know interferes with what we are currently learning – where old memories disrupt new memories. Exp: I had to update my UWL password recently but now, every time, I log in, I STILL enter my OLD password a few times before I remember that I changed it! •Retroactive interference (retro=backward) occurs when you forget a previously learnt task due to the learning of a new task. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning - where new memories disrupt old memories. Example: I can no longer remember my previous cell phone number (even though I used it for years). It has been replaced by my current cell phone number. Metacognition includes our awareness of and ability to regulate or control our own thinking. It is key to effective learning and thinking. It is our metacognitive ability that helps us recognize when we do not understand something or why we may be having trouble understanding something. It is our metacognitive ability that allows us to decide what to do when we don't understand something (e.g., ask a question, restudy the material, search out a better explanation from another source, try to explain the idea to someone else, etc.). Students who have poor metacognitive abilities do not realize when they don't understand something, don't know what actions to take if they don't understand something, would not seek out additional information, ask questions or come up with an alternative approach to trying to understand something difficult. Teachers can help their students become more effective learners by cultivating their metacognitive abilities. •Metacognitive knowledge: Knowledge about our own cognitive processes and an understanding of how to regulate those processes to maximize learning. (May include personal knowlegde about our abilities, the task, strategies, etc) Metacognitive regulation: Purposeful act of attempting to control our own cognitions, beliefs, emotions, and values...