Unit 3 Study Questions PDF

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Psyc 290 Unit 3 Study Questions...

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Psyc 290: Unit 4 Study Questions 1. Describe and provide examples, where available, of the principal broad categories and subcategories of psychological tests. (pp. 395-396) Comment: The Chinese used civil service testing over 4000 years ago (DuBois, 1970, 1972). However, North American testing began when the American Civil Service Commission was established in the US in 1883 (Wiggins, 1973). In the early 1900s, Alfred Binet was commissioned to develop a test that could distinguish mentally deficient children in the French school system so they could be given special help. This test evolved into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Group testing was developed during World War I as a way to screen large numbers of military recruits. This “group testing” approach was later transferred to the educational setting.

The Broad Categories of Psychological Tests: 1. Mental Ability Tests - original type of psychological testing, 3 subcategories a. Intelligence Tests - measure general mental ability b. Aptitude Tests - assess specific mental abilities (ex. The DAT, which assesses verbal reasoning, language usage, numerical ability, etc) c. Achievement Tests - measures a person’s mastery and knowledge of various subjects (ex. Knowledge in math, history, or english) 2. Personality Tests - measures various aspects of personality (Assertiveness, leadership abilities, domineering, etc); used to determine things such as who is qualified for a job, who should be sent to war, career tests for students, etc

2. Explain the concepts of standardization and test norms. (p. 396) Comment: Many tests today are made up of subtests or subscales. Instead of a single score for a norm, a profile is generated that represents performance of individual subscales. Norms provide much of the rationale behind the testing movement. Without being able to compare an individual’s performance to that of others, tests are relatively useless.

Standardization: the uniform procedures when administering and scoring tests. Allows researchers to test a large, diverse group of people with the same questions, time limits, and test conditions. Test Norms: allows researchers to determine where you rank in the group of test takers; developed during the creation of standardization tests

3. Explain the meaning of test reliability and validity, and discuss how these qualities are estimated. What is the difference between content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity? (pp. 396-400)

Reliability: the measurement of the consistency of a research study or measuring test Validity: the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure, used to refer to the accuracy/usefulness of the inferences based on a test

Content Validity: the degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it’s supposed to cover (ex. A psychology test should not ask questions about history or musical composers) Criterion-Related Validity: measures how well one measure predicts an outcome for another measure. Estimated by correlating subjects’ scores on a test with their scores on an independent criterion of the trait assessed (ex. Aptitude test for becoming a doctor should heavily correlate with someone’s MCAT scores -knowledge and aptitude performance-)

Construct Validity: the extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct. This is harder to achieve because it is difficult to measure things such as creativity or intelligence

4. Summarize the contributions of Galton, Binet, and Wechsler to the evolution of intelligence testing. (pp. 400-402)

Francis Galton ● Studied heredity - saw that intelligence was passed through generations ● Felt that intelligence was passed on through genetic inheritance, not environmental impacts ● Didn’t acknowledge the idea that successful families often foster positive learning environments ● Created the term ‘nature vs nurture’ to refer to the heredity vs environment debate ● Invented the concepts of correlation and percentile test scores ● His own mental tests were failures but they did create an interest in the measurement of mental ability

Alfred Binet ● Commissioned to create the first test to identify mentally subnormal kids ● The test was meant to identify kids who would benefit from special training without relying on individual teacher evaluations ● He and his partner created the first of many childhood IQ test, which continue to influence of current

David Wechsler ● Published the first high quality IQ test for adults - eventually created a downward extension on it for children ● For children - test less dependent on the subject’s verbal ability, with more items that required nonverbal reasoning and scoring scheme was based on normal distribution ● normal distribution is the scoring scheme for most current IQ tests ● Test normally based on verbal, nonverbal, and full-scale IQ

5. What kinds of questions are found on intelligence tests? (pp. 403, 404) Comment: What is intelligence? This question is crucial when trying to devise a test to measure intelligence. There are varying degrees of thought as to the

makeup and construction of intelligence. Binet (1905) defined intelligence in terms of an individual’s capacity to do the following: a. find and maintain a definite direction or purpose, b. adjust strategy, if necessary, to achieve that purpose, and c. evaluate and criticize the strategy so that necessary components could be made. (as cited in Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009, p. 234)

The types of questions found on an IQ test varies depending on circumstances, such as if the test is meant for children or adults, or if it is intended to be taken within groups or on an individual basis. Generally, the questions are intended to assess a variety of mental abilities and skills, and therefore covers a wide range of different types of intelligence including analogies (mathematical and verbal), pattern driven (spatial and mathematical), classification, visual, spatial, and logical. The questions can appear in different formats such as, numeric, through imagery, or words.

6. Kaplan and Saccuzzo (2009) defined intelligence as general potential that is independent of prior learning (p. 8). Murphy and Davidshoffer (2005) purported that intelligence could only be defined by behaviour. 7. What do modern IQ scores mean? (pp. 403-405; Figure 9.8, p. 405)

Modern IQ scores are based on the normal distribution of the scores recorded.

Normal distribution is the bell-curve that represents the traits dispersed among the population. When a trait is normally distributed amongst a population it would fall within the limits of the curve (between -3 and +3). This represents 99.772% of the population. The center of the curve indicates an IQ score of 100, and for each score above or below it would move farther out from the center. A score of 85 would be 1 SD point below average, 100 is average, and 115 would be 1SD point above.

8. Do intelligence tests have adequate reliability? Why, or why not? (p. 405)

Most IQ tests report a commendable reliability, and have a correlation generally in the high 0.90s. However, IQ tests are only as reliable as the information they are testing, the motivations of the test taker, or their anxiety levels. These things can all impact the reliability of the scores. 9. Do intelligence tests have adequate validity? Why, or why not? (pp. 406-407)

IQ tests are said to have adequate validity, but they only test academic intelligence, so for any knowledge beyond that it is questionable. The correlation between IQ scores and school grades is about 0.40-0.70, which is not relatively high considering IQ tests were designed to measure school performance. It is difficult to measure school performance because it can depend on so many different factors.

10. Do intelligence tests predict vocational success? Explain. (pp. 407-408)

Data shows that those with high IQ test scores are more likely to get high-status, highpaying jobs. But this data could be skewed because IQ tests measure school performance acquired knowledge, which leads to good grades and motivation to pursue higher education and in turn get high status jobs. It is hard to tell if one gets a good job because of the acquired knowledge (high IQ score) or does one get a high IQ scores because of the acquired knowledge and motivation to achieve more,

11. Are IQ tests widely used in other cultures? Explain. (p. 408)

IQ tests are widely used in Western cultures (UK, Canada, Australia, France, etc), and is uncommon in non-wetern cultures. The main reason is that the tests do not translate

well into other languages or cognitive frameworks. There is also a difference in the conception of what intelligence is, and its not all about school performance and learned knowledge.

12. Summarize evidence from twin studies and adoption studies on whether heredity affects intelligence. What does the heritability ratio for human intelligence (around 60 per cent) mean? Why can you not use a heritability ratio to explain a particular individual’s intelligence? (pp. 414-416)

Twin Studies (of both fraternal and identical) - has shown that some level of intelligence is inherited. ● With identical twins raised together, the correlation between intelligence and heredity is as high as 0.86 - identical twins tend to be very similar in intelligence ● Identical twins raised apart had a correlation of 0.72, which indicates that a large amount of intelligence is heritable ● With fraternal twins raised together, the correlation of intelligence and heredity is 0.60. This lower correlation indicates fraternal twins tend to be similar in intelligence but not as close as identical Adoption Studies - have indicated that there is more than chance similarity between adopted children and their biological parents ● The heritability ratio (around 0.60) indicates that around 60% of a group’s intelligence isinherited, and 40 % is due to the environment ● This ratio cannot be suggestive of one person's intelligence though because it is an estimate of a trait in a group of people, and traits differ among groups. This would affect the heritability ratio from group to group. ● Groups could also differ from location, ethnicity, class (low or high income), and education styles

13. Summarize the evidence from research on adoption, environmental deprivation and enrichment, and home

environment that shows how experience shapes intelligence. (pp. 416-417)

Adoption studies have indicated that children raised in suboptimal environments gradually lose their intelligence. But, when those same children were moved from the suboptimal/institutional environments to middle/upper class homes, their IQ scores were considerably higher than siblings that were “left behind”. This shows that IQ scores are not unchangeable.

14. What is the Flynn effect? What are the proposed explanations for the Flynn effect? (p. 417)

The Flynn effect is the term to explain that over time, the IQ tests are revamped and as the tests change, the performance needed to score 100 has increased. James Flynn collected data to show that IQ performance had been steadily rising since the 1930’s. Explanations for the Flynn effect: genetic factors - it is unlikely that in only 70 years the population's genetic pool had changed enough to explain the change.

15. Using the concept of reaction range, explain how heredity and the environment interact to affect intelligence. (pp. 417-418; Figure 9.16, p. 418)

Reaction range: refers to genetically determined limits on IQ (or other traits). This comes from the theory that genetic makeup puts upper limits on a person’s IQ that cannot be exceeded, even in the most ideal environment. Heredity is also thought to place a lower limit on intelligence, although extreme cases could drag someone below this level. The reaction range limits can explain why some high-IQ children sometimes come from poor environments and vice versa.

16. Describe the three explanations for cultural differences in IQ scores. Which one is best supported by research? (pp. 418-421)

Explanations for Cultural Differences in IQ scores: 1. Heritability: some individuals believe intelligence heritability factor is high, and the differences seen in IQ scores between races is due to innate, genetic differences in intelligence 2. Socioeconomic disadvantage: white people tend to be in higher socioeconomic status than other groups and thus have more enriched intellectual environment 3. Stereotype threat: groups that have negative stereotypes about their intelligence are affected outside the effect created by socioeconomic disadvantage 4. Cultural bias on IQ tests: because IQ tests are created by middle-to-upper class white individuals, the language and way of thinking are biased and put other cultures at a disadvantage 5. A century of research has shown that genetics and experience jointly influence individuals’ intelligence, tempera- ment, personality, and susceptibility to many psy- chological disorders 17. Describe the new trends (replacing IQ tests and biological correlates of intelligence) in the assessment and study of intelligence. (pp. 424-425) New Trends in the Assessment and Study of Intelligence: ● The relationship between brain size and intelligence is being explored,using various measurements of the head as an indicator of brain size ○ The results were verysmall, positive correlations (0.15) between head size and brain size. ● Led to examining the brain volume through MRI scan ○ They found an average correlation of 0.35 - allowing researchers to assume that larger brains are more predictive of greater intelligence ● Researchers furthered this study by examining key areas in the brain to determine which areas in the brain growth was noticed ○ it was observed through experiments with labs rats, that an enriched

environment can promote a larger brain size ● It is suggested that higher intelligence reduces a great deal of health risks as there is a lower mortality rate from cardiovascular diseases, cancers or external causes ● A similar study where compared adolescent IQ to health problems at the age of 40 found that there was a decrease in chronic lung disease, heart problems, hypertension, diabetes, and arthritis/rheumatism 18. Describe Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories of intelligence. (pp. 425-429) The triarchic theory of human intelligence consists of three parts: the contextual, experiential,and componential subtheories. Contextual Theory - Intelligence is a cultural defined concept - Different displays of intelligence are valued in different circumstances. For example, one culture may place more value on a particular skill more than another culture would on the same skill Experiential Theory - Explores the relationship between experience and intelligence - Two factors determine intelligent behaviour: 1) Dealing effectively with new tasks, demands, and situations 2) Handling familiar tasks automatically and effortlessly

Componential Theory - Three types of mental processes which intelligent thought depends on 1) Metacomponents 2) Performance components 3) Knowledge-acquisition components - Has prompted extensive research on the thinking methods which contribute to intelligence problem solving, as intelligent individuals tend to spend more time thinking about how to solve a problem than those of lower intelligence

Through recent extensions of the theory, there are three aspects to

“successful intelligence“ which include: - Analytical intelligence: Involves abstract reasoning, evaluation, and judgement and is the type of intelligence required for most schoolwork and IQ tests. - Creative Intelligence: Involves the ability to be inventive with new problems and generate new ideas. - Practical Intelligence: Involves effectively dealing with everyday problems, as well as being able to learn skills which allow efficient work within one’s environment that may not be taught or verbalized directly.

The three mental processes which intelligent thought depends on contributes to the three aspects of “successful intelligence”, although these three aspects (analytical, creative, and practical intelligence) can be measured reliably and independently (uncorrelated). The Assessment of these three factors is also believed to improve the prediction of intelligence.Sternberg’s model can be used to help predict academic achievement, when supplemented with traditional test.

19. Explain how Weiten and McCann (2013) use three of the unifying (integrative) themes in their study of intelligence. (p. 429)

Weiten and McCann use three unifying themes in their study of intelligence. 1. The illustration that behaviour is shaped by cultural factors, as disparities appear to be due in part by both cultural considerations and disadvantages. In order to achieve a better understanding of behaviour, we need to appreciate the cultural context which helps develop it. 2. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context and social attitudes have always exerted some influence on testing practices as well as the interpretation of results from those tests. The use of IQ tests was once associated with social prejudice, however, in modern day when used properly, intelligence tests are objective measures with little bias. 3. Heredity and environment jointly shape behaviour through a complex interaction. The nature versus nurture debate was dramatically illustrated through the example of Arthur Jensen, who was widely criticized and

accused of racism. Additionally, the science behind arriving to a conclusion about a joint influence on behaviour by both genetics and environment was identified 20. Describe creativity tests. Summarize how well they predict creative achievement. (pp. 430-431)

Creativity tests are tests which are designed to measure creativity in children or adults. Creativity Tests are aimed at assessing the qualities and abilities that constitute creativity. These tests evaluate mental abilities in ways that are different from conventional intelligence tests. Subjects are given a series of questions that require creative and unique responses (e.g. “think of as many fluids that burn as you can”) and are assessed according to the number of alternatives that they generate as well as the originality and usefulness of them.

Creativity tests have been indicated to have a low ability to predict creative achievement due to the assumption that creativity is a general trait, rather one that is specific to particular domains. Creative achievement also depends on additional factors, such as motivation, intelligence, personality, training, and good fortune. Additionally, there is no single personality profile that accounts for creative abilities.

21. Describe the associations between creativity and personality, intelligence, and mental illness. (pp. 432-430) ● Creative people are more likely to be independent, nonconforming, introverted, open to newexperiences, self-confident, persistent, ambitious, dominant, and impulsive. ● Those who are creative tend to think more for themselves and are not as easily influenced by the opinions of other people ● Living abroad, which is linked to openness, is also associated with an increase of creativity ● Correlations between creativity and measures of intelligence are weak (0.17 in a recent study), however other studies have suggested that it is stronger (0.40) ● According to the threshold hypothesis, creativity is thought to be associated with

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a minimum level of intelligence (an IQ of 120), which suggests that creative individuals are likely above average intelligence. Those who do not meet this minimum level of intelligence would be less creative. Modern research has yet to support this which allows the conclusion that there is a weak too modest assoc...