Work psychology 4 - notes PDF

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Internal vs external attribution Internal attributional style: Blaming themselves for all sorts of events and are constantly apologising for events that are outside their control. External attributional style: interpreting that the causes of events are outside one’s control Stable vs unstable attribution Stable attributional style: thinking that the causes of such situations are permanent, stable and long lasting. Unstable attributional style: thinking that causes of events are temporary and not longlasting. Global vs specific attributional style Global attributional Style: a belief that the cause of an outcome on a certain event/task will determine outcomes in other situations. Specific attributional Style: a belief that the cause for an outcome operates uniquely. Optimism Scheier and Carver (2000) ◦ expectation that good things will be plentiful in the future Optimism predicts good health and health promoting behaviours (Steptoe et al., 2009) Two studies of college students found that optimists reported developing fewer physical symptoms than pessimists over time (Scheier & Carver, 1991; Taylor & Aspinwall, 1990). Peterson et al., (1998) They examined more than 1000 individuals over almost a 50 year period. They found that pessimists are more likely to die young. It was found that the real difference between optimists and pessimists, in terms of causes of death, was in the frequency of accidents and violent deaths. Pessimists had more accidents Pessimists have a tendency to be in the wrong place, at the wrong time. Perhaps pessimists are motivated to escape their gloomy moods by choosing exciting but risky situations??? Perhaps they evoke unfortunate reactions in others??? It seems that pessimists, especially male ones, have a habit of being in the wrong place at the wrong time. It seems that they select the wrong situations to be in. Pessimists had more accidents and more deaths due to violent causes. Resulting in an average shorter life expectancy. This effect was particularly strong for men. How does optimism promote health? Five mechanisms that link optimism to health 1. Through the immune system 2. Through an emotional mechanism 3. Through a cognitive mechanism 4. Through a mechanism that promotes social contact 5. Through a direct behavioural mechanism Optimism and the immune system Kamen-Siegal et al (1991)

◦ Immune systems of optimists respond better and with more strength than the immune system of pessimists Peterson & Bossio (2001) ◦ Optimists may live longer following the development of AIDS symptoms and that this may be due to improved immune functioning among optimists Optimism and emotion Depression is linked to poor health Optimists are resistant to depression Perhaps optimism is indirectly related to health??? because it protects the person from depression Optimism and cognitive processes Optimism may be related to an extensive set of beliefs about oneself and the world These beliefs may promote health or healthy behaviours Peterson and de Avila (1995) showed that optimism was related to the belief that one can maintain and promote one's own health, as well as the belief that one can reduce health risks. Optimism and social contact Pessimists tend to be loners Social isolation is a predictor of poor health (Your friends and family provide the earliest medical advice when things start to go wrong. E.g., a friend may say you look stressed today) Less feedback about health. Less support during illnesses and this may impede their recovery Optimism and behaviour Optimism may result in behaviours that are beneficial to health. Perhaps optimists simply do more of the right things, such as exercising, sleeping, eating healthy and fewer of the wrong things (e.g., drinking, smoking and having unprotected sex ) may prove to be the most critical link in the connection between optimism and health. Negative effects of optimism Chesterman, Cohen, and Adler (1990) found that optimism predicted birth complications in older women. Cohen, et al (1997) found evidence suggesting that optimists showed decreased immunocompetence in response to difficult stressors. Because optimists are likely to see positive outcomes as attainable, they may invest greater effort to achieve their goals. such engagement would be more physiologically demanding when pursuing difficult goals. Unrealistic optimism People tend to be optimistic about the chances of developing various disorders and diseases. Turner et al (1988) ◦ Students tended to be optimistic of their own chances of contracting AIDS. ◦ Even when they engage in high risk behaviours. Optimism may be linked to many positive health related outcomes but may also increase the likelihood of some risky behaviours.

1. Behavioural Inhibition System (Avoidance behaviour) – comparable to “Neuroticism”

2. Fight-Flight Freeze System– responses to unconditioned and conditioned aversive stimuli – perhaps “Psychoticism” Comparison table for BIS/BAS

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Individual differences stem from the relative sensitivity of the BAS/BIS systems o fMRI studies showed that there are differences, based on BIS/BAS, in the number of brain areas being associated with certain stimuli o Any application in real-life in Criminological/Health/Educational settings?

Zuckerman (Enzymes)  Individual differences in sensation seeking is related to the enzymes (e.g. monoamine oxidase (MAO)) that breaks down neurotransmitters in synapses after impulse transmission. o The right amount of enzymes is required:  too much enzyme; less neurotransmitters; signals will be weak;  too little enzyme; more neurotransmitters; signals may be too strong  High sensation seekers (tendency to seek out thrilling/exciting activities) have:  low MAO level;  more neurotransmitters:  Less inhibition/brakes (stronger signal)  less control over thoughts, behaviours and emotions. Cloninger’s Tridimensional Personality Model (Neurotransmitters)  Individual differences are due to neurotransmitters o Dopamine – “pleasure” neurotransmitters o Serotonin – linked to mood disorders  Blocking reuptake of serotonin leads to better outcome (feeling less depressed)  Regulating impulsive aggression (e.g. when frustrated)  Norephinephrine (or noradrenaline) –activated during fight-or-flight response  Levels of the 3 neurotransmitters are related to novelty seeking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence respectively Other related concepts  Morningness-eveningness (Owl or lark) o Biological rhythms (Body temperature, chemical release) that fluctuates in approx. 24 hours cycle

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Individual differences in “typology”, length of sleep-wake cycle Can affect interpersonal relationships, quality of work performance (alertness, short term memory) and behaviour Some correlations with personality traits

Morningtype/eveningtype people  Heritabic � Are we morning type or eveningtype or in the middle?  Waking up in the middle of the night � We get woken up at 2-4am, body temperature drops, body rythms change, wake up from being cold Interpersonal relationships

Morningtype vs eveningtype

Eg someone is loud and wakes you up in rhe morning because toue loud at night= interpersonal relationships Extraversion=evening type Correlational studies= NO CAUSALITY Difference btween correlational and cause and effect. If something is related to seomthign, doesn’t mean it is cause and effect too. Spearman’s g: He observed and found that all the tests were correlated with each other and what he suggested on this basis was this positive manifold: an overarching positive relationship between all the tests. This suggested that in the data there was this general intelligence factor.  Charles Spearman developed tests for children to discriminate change in weight, illumination and also to test memory  The factor labelled in the positive manifold was that which he called “g” Spearman’s g Spearman proposed a 2-factor theory of intelligence: specific abilities, s, general intelligence, g He argued performance on any intelligence test is a result of these two underlying psychological factors Explanation: So he discovered the underlying causes of intelligence, and that they were specific abilities and general intelligence. He also highlighted that these were psychological factors. However it is not specified what that is? But anyways this kind of resolved the debate between hereditary factors and academic performance?

Spearman’s g? What else could explain the positive manifold observed? Reification of g Test results are used to infer a property Factor analysis → alternative solutions? You can find different factor solutions, in addition to the positive manifold and the factura analysis that came. By conducting FA differently, different mathematical solutions can be found. If you rotate factor clusters, you can actually find different mathematical solutions. The presence of g is also affected by how you perform your factor analysis. Two rotated factor clusters in image below:

Measuring g Raven’s Progressive Matrices Developed by John Raven in 1938 based on Spearman’s theory g has been thought to be related to abstract ability to see relationships between objects, events and information, and to infer from these relationships Use of non-verbal “puzzle”-like items to test abstract ability Rules have to be derived from the patterns presented

Explanation: so he used Spearman’s original theory and developed a way to measure g in individuals, using non-verbal puzzle-like items to test abstract ability. So he meant that g is related to abstract ability to see relationships between objects and to infer from these relationships. Basically IQ tests you do today look a lot like this, they present you with patterns and want you to figure out which one fits in to the empty slot. Raven’s Progressive Matrices Useful for 6 y.o, to adults Various versions of them including the Coloured, Standard and Advanced Progressive Matrices ◼ Version used depends on the age and expected intelligence level of the person Considered to be less influenced by culture levels of well-being than the more expressive persons. Yamaski et al (2011) However, there are some situations in life in which it is wise to choose to hide feelings when the consequences of expressing them may be particularly negative or troublesome (Wismeijer, 2011) Disclosure: telling someone about a private aspect of oneself Research suggests that keeping things to ourselves, not opening up to other people, may be a source of stress and ultimately may lead to psychological distress and physical disease (Pennebaker, 2003) Expressing our emotions in words (e.g., talk to someone or write it in a diary) can enhance our well-being ( Piolat & Bannour, 2011) The concept of disorder Psychological disorder Pattern of behaviour or experience that is distressing and painful to the person Leads to disability or impairment in important life domains Associated with the increased risk for further suffering, loss of function, death or confinement (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) What is abnormal? Statistical definition: Whatever is rare, not frequent, and not statistically normal. Social definition: Whatever society does not tolerate. Both of these are tied to changing social or cultural norms. These norms however change over time and across cultures. What is considered normal today perhaps wasn’t twenty or thirty years ago. Psychologists try to identify what is abnormal in behaviour and experience. They look inside the person, at their feelings such as anxiety and depression. They look at a person’s thoughts and experiences. They have found that some people have disorganised thoughts or unusual beliefs. some people find it difficult to get on with other people, or to cope with everyday situations. From a psychological perspective an individual of these could be considered abnormal. Disorders of personality Personality is unique and enduring patterns of inner experience and behaviour displayed by individual; consistent but flexible traits.

If a trait becomes rigid and inflexible and causes significant impairment or distress, then it is considered to be a personality disorder. The pattern is rigid and is displayed across a variety of situations, leading to distress or problems in important areas in life (e.g., at work or in relationships). E.g., an overly conscientious man might drive his wife crazy with his constant checking of his door lock. History of tests and theories so far Galton’s ‘Hereditary Genius’ (1896) Binet-Simon and Stanford-Binet tests and the concept of ‘relative’ IQ Group testing (Army alpha and beta tests) Spearman’s g and Raven’s Progressive Matrices Tests and theories covered today Further early tests Wechsler’s tests Multifactor models Thurstone, Cattell and Guilford Hierarchical models Vernon; Carroll’s 3-Stratum Model; Cattell, Horn and Carroll Alternative models: Gardner’s multiple intelligences; Sternberg’s triarchic model Wechsler tests/scales David Wechsler developed tests based on the 2-factor theory of Spearman, and Binet Wechsler-Bellevue scale (1939), first standardised on 1500 adults Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS, 1955), first standardised on 2000 adults (16-75 y.o.) Wechsler Scale for Children (1955) (5-16 years) Wechsler’s tests/scales - now in fourth edition (WAIS IV, 2008) – WAIS-IV.com Designed so individuals of different ages could take the same test Deviation IQ, and not mental age IQ Adult performance does not change as drastically as it does across early childhood Deviation IQ is based on expected test score for that age (based on standardisation sample)

Explanation: So basically Wechsler introduced a test that could be tested on anyone in any age, so same test for different age groups. His focus was on the fact that IQ is deviated and not based on your mental age. So what he did was he took the actual test score of each individual and divided it by the expected score for that age (based on standard deviations from further testings) and timed that by 100, presenting the IQ of that person. Notes: Recall last week we finished by discussing Raven’s progressive matrices – a measure designed to be culturally fair index of g. Other people were at the same time trying to develop intelligence test measures that improved on earlier tests in different ways. Wechsler tests used the same ‘hotch potch’ approach of Binet ie the idea that if you used enough of a variety of measures they would provide a useful index of mental aptitude. However, later editions evolved with intelligence theory Came from the binet tests, if you measure enough things then you will have some measurement altitude, criteria for incusnons for a iq test is that it correlates with other (??) of IQ tests. Tests of IQ created in a away that you are measuring people according to a norm. How representative the measure is is important, Stratified by other demographic variables such as gender, and then you have to ask yourself: how much does it represent the actual population? Designed so individuals of different ages could take the same test Deviation IQ, and not mental age IQ EY CONCEPT 1  Theory of natural selection o Changes (e.g. improvement in characteristics) lead to species survival (more descendents) or “survival of the fittest” o Mutation is key to this process o Repeated over time, this process is called adaptation The survival of the species, if we don’t survive, our genes don’t survie, unless we pass them on. Body system adapts to warm wather, if it gets cold we die Mutation, adaptation, if youre an escimo then you need an extra leyer of fat in your body to survive in that environment. How do we know that this is a good theory?

KEY CONCEPT 2  Sexual selection o Characteristics that evolve because of mating benefits o Characteristics facilitate:  intrasexual competition between members of the same sex

2 males – competing with each other, “showing off” intelligence, physical strength so gain access to the female  intersexual selection between members of the opposite sex  Females choosing males of a particular characteristics  What limitations are there about this concept? Certain human characteristics that eill evolve in time Infrasecual competition � men vs women Intersexual selection between members of the opposite sex Females choosing males of particular characteristics What do females look for?  Success, resourvefull, look at his shoes 

What do men look for?  Body shape  Likely to produce children Limitatiions=  Heterosexual focus  The Erratic Cluster:  Ways of Being Unpredictable, Violent, or Emotional  Persons with these disorders appear erratic, emotional, and have difficulties getting along with others.  Includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.                      

Antisocial personality disorder The antisocial personality disorder shows a general disregard for others and cares very little about the rights, feelings, or happiness of other people. Another common characteristic of the antisocial personality is impulsivity, which is often manifested as a failure to plan ahead. E.g., the person might enter a shop and decide to rob the shop keeper even though he or she has not planned a getaway. Prisoners with antisocial personalities often complain that their lack of planning led to their arrest. They respond to minor frustrations with aggression. They get bored easily and show little regard for their own safety and that of others. They often rationalise their crimes by saying that their victims “deserved it.” Behaviour: Little concern for others (“Coldhearted”). Easily irritated. Reckless and irresponsible. Emotion: Low on fear & guilt – ruthless, without the normal levels of human compassion, charity, or social concern. Quick-tempered. Self-concept: Self as unfettered by rules

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Social Relations: Glib or superficial charm Callous social attitudes Lack of guilt feelings or remorse Indifferent to suffering of others Typical Thoughts or Beliefs: “Remember, look out for yourself” “It’s a jungle out there; only the strong will survive” “I’ll do whatever it takes to get my way” “I don’t care what others think of me” Adults with this disorder typically had a childhood that was fraught with behavioural problems (e., thefts, smoking at an early age or fighting with other children; lying, destroying property, breaking rules, cruelly toward animals). This disorder occurs in males three times more frequently than in females. If a child shows no signs of conduct problems by age 15, it is unlikely that he or she will develop an antisocial personality as an adult. Children with earlier start of conduct problems (e.g., by age 6 or 7) are much more likely to grow into an antisocial personality disorder as an adult than are children who displayed a few conduct problems in high school....