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CHAPTER 6 SHRINKING THE AFRO-EURASIAN WORLD, 350 BCE -250 CE INTRODUCTION 1.) 324 BCE - Alexander the Great armies began to turn back a.) Mutiny at the tributary of the Indus River and threatened to desert - Alexander responds by persuading them not to desert 2.) Two Broad Cultural Movements arose a.) Hellenism & Buddhism i.) Both traveled along long distance trade routes ii.) Culture endured longer than empires b.) Southeast Asia Hellenism - impact of a gradual political change with a result being Buddhism POLITICAL EXPANSION AND CULTURAL DIFFUSION 1.) Promotion of culturally Greek-oriented communities across Afro-Eurasia a.) Rome to the Ganges River 2.) What is Hellenism - derived from Greek ‘Hellenes’ - meaning Greek a.) Common identity, language, art, architecture, drama, politics, philosophy, etc. 3.) Alexander’s conquests and government a.) Promoted trade and established commercial arteries (replaced early passageways) i.) Establishment of the Silk Road - which connected East Asia to Mediterranean THE EMERGENCE OF A COSMOPOLITAN WORLD 1.) Unification of the Mediterranean world and transformation of cultural and economic exchange resulted from conquests of the Greeks and Alexander’s armies - undermined Persian Rule Conquests of Alexander the Great 1.) Macedonian who commanded a highly mobile force (armed w/ advanced technologies) a.) Philip II - Macedonia was a highly ethnic and territorial state i.) Macedonian gold mines and slave trade could finance military conquests and massive army ii.) 330s - Phillip crushes the southern Greek city-states (including Athens) b.) Alexander’s Rise after Assassination of Philip II i.) Attacks Persian Empire under Darius III - seized control of Persia ii.) Battle of Guagamela - Indus River Valley

c.) Saw himself as a universal figure to connect Afro-Eurasia i.) Marriage to Roxana - from Central Asia ii.) Exposed Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Palestine to Greek ideals, money based economies, and commodities from the Mediterranean iii.) Founding of Alexandria in Egypt iv.) Dispersing of Persian wealth into the economies of the Mediterranean city-states Alexander’s Successors and the Territorial Kingdoms 1.) 323 BCE - Alexander dies from over-consumption of alcohol and the beginning of political fragmentation occurs a.) Successors - modeled themselves as regional rulers who introduced Alexander’s style of absolute rulership and unification of territory i.) Seleucus ii.) Ptolemy iii.) Antigonus iv.) Lysimachus v.) Others b.) Introduction of Power to Women 2.) Queens in Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt - ruling independent or as regents i- established new public roles for women a.) Bernice of Egypt (320 -280 BCE) - began the line of women to rule the kingdom of the Nile (ending with Cleopatra in 30s BCE) 3.) Establishment of three new dynasties a.) Seleucid Empire (established by Seleucus) b.) Macedonia - ruled by Antigonids (established by Antigonus) c.) Egypt - ruled by Ptolemy 4.) Standardization evident in politics and everyday life and the role of non subordination of subjects - instead integrated people into fellow subjects 5.) Competition did not affect states - wars did not change major kingdoms - due to the fact that every state had access to military technologies a.) Rise of diplomacy and treaties - international interstate relations Hellenistic Culture 1.) Spread throughout existing commercial networks along the Mediterranean Basin a.) Included: i.) Philosophical and Political thinking ii.) Secular disciplines ranging from history to biology iii.) Competitive public games iv.) Theatre, Arts and Media 2.) Evidence: a.) Greek-style gymnasium and theater in the town of Al Khanoum (modern Afghanistan) b.) Sculptures ordered by Vedic king Sandrakottos or Chandragupta c.) Carthagians become Greek philosophers

d.) Gallic and Berbers discovered with Greek-style drinking vessels in burial ruins 3.) COMMON LANGUAGE a.) Core element of Hellenism known as “koine” or common Greek - replaced city-state dialects and became an international language i.) Egypt, Judea, Syria, and Sicily - could communicate with one another more easily (1) Trade (2) Communication networks (3) Culture spread 4.) COSMOPOLITAN CITIES a.) Athens & Alexandria i.) Athens (1) Exclusive civic identity ii.) Alexandria (1) Multi-ethnic built by immigrants (2) Diversity b.) Culture i.) Art forms (1) Previously more local but now more widespread as the world was interconnected and must meet the needs of the populations ii.) Citizenship (1) Revolutionized from the “polis” - particular city to the cosmopolitans or “polites” iii.) Rulership - reflected the personality of the ruler themselves - which in turn unified large numbers of subjects (1) Rise of individualism 5.) PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION a.) Expression of the Individual Self i.) Diogenes (412 - 323 BCE) -sought self-sufficiency and freedom from society’s laws and customs but rejected cultural norms (1) Masturbated in public to “relieve himself” / was a natural need and showed disdain for sexaul morals (2) Lived with female companion with no clothes in a barrel in the middle of the agora “Public Square” of Athens b.) The Garden i.) Founded by Epicurus (341- 279 BCE) ii.) Emphasized “the self” and envisioned an ideal community that stressed the importance of sensations (pleasurable sensations are good and painful sensations are bad) (1) What is the good life? (2) Welcomed all classes - value was equal

c.) Stoicism i.) Founded by Zeno (334- 262 BCE) from Cyprus (1) Help understand place in cosmos (a) Stoa Pokule - decorated and roofed colonnade that opened onto the central marketplace of Athens (2) Everything grounded in nature - cities and kingdoms were human-made things therefore one must understand the rules of the natural order and remain in control of one’s passions d.) Greek colonial control and the exportation of religions throughout the Mediterranean Greek influence on cult of Osiris and his consort Isis i.) Osiris - embodied personal salvation from death ii.) Isis represented the excellencies or supreme virtues that encompassed the powers of dozens of other god's and goddesses 6.) HELLENISM AND THE ELITES a.) Social elites sought to enhance position by adopting Hellenistic culture - which was the only culture above traditional values i.) Eastern and Western Mediterranean/ Roman Culture - all forms of Greek (1) Greek philosophers employed by North African kings b.) Sub-Saharan Africa - Kingdom of Meroe absorbed characteristics of Greek culture i.) Continuous interactions with Egyptians ii.) Both Meroe and Axum utilized Greek stelae to boast military exploits iii.) Herodotus - mentions the citizens of Meroe “worshipped Zeus and Dionysus” and held those God's to great honor (1) Oracle of Zeus as well iv.) Influenced Egyptian-Greek cultural works and architecture Jewish Resistance to Hellenism 1.) Influenced by resistance due to their conquering by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians a.) Rebuilding of Jerusalem began after Jews were able to return to Judea from Babylon under Persian rule 2.) Persian Rule - tolerated the local customs and beliefs but were defeated in 330s by Alexander’s forces (who introduced innovations and culture of the Mediterranean World a.) Jew viewed Hellenistic culture (nudity, language, and art) as threatening to their beliefs and immoral i.) Revolt under the family of the Maccabees in 167 that resulted in establishment of independent Jewish state 3.) Greek Culture among Jews a.) Printing of Greek coins (cited with legends) b.) Jews living in Alexandria c.) Historians and Philosophers - who wrote in Greek and imitated Greek models The Hellenistic World and the Beginnings of the Roman Empire

1.) Less reluctant than Jerusalem to follow Hellenistic ideals - saw that the Greek model offered opportunities to increase importance 2.) 330s- 320s BCE a.) City-state of Rome on the Tiber River begins unification moves on Italy b.) Went from city-state to territorial state and adopted significant Greek ideals (temples, art, and alphabet) 3.) Civilization Aspect - Romans wanted to appear “civilized” in eyes of the world a.) Some resistance - Cato the Elder (234- 149 BCE) did not favor eliminating Roman history, language, and ideal of small scale Roman farmers/ families but did embrace Hellenistic influences i.) Standard manual for new economy of slave plantation agriculture ii.) Shipping and trade investment iii.) Greek language and rhetoric iv.) Latin Literature (1) History Carthage 1.) Unlike the Romans - who adopted Hellenism to elevate status (Carthage adopted Hellenism due to the already prosperous nature of its civilization) and experienced success 2.) Expansion through Conquest or Trade a.) Conquered Western Sicily and Sardinia b.) Traded with Phoenicians i.) Evidence of pottery in Etruscans and Italy, Marseilles (France), and Athens ii.) Traded along West Africa - Commander Hanno explored and colonized (1) Island of Mogador 3.) Culture influenced by important aspects of Hellenism a.) Greek-style pediments and columns mixed with Punic designs and measurements- along with North African motifs and structures b.) Jewelry reflected styles of Egypt c.) Coinage and innovative ideas on politics and warfare came from Greece Economic Changes: Plantation Slavery and Money-Based Economies 1.) Use of slave labor in agricultural production - in Italy, Sicily, and North African/ Carthaginian regimes a.) Influenced by mass accumulation of wealth by small elites - who used it to purchase land and slaves i.) Introduction of surplus and cash crops b.) Forced peasants to move to cities i.) Other outcomes (1) 135- 70 BCE - authorities had to put down slave uprisings in Italy and Sicily (a) Spartacus - late 70s 2.) Circulation of money reinforces the effects of forced labor - increased use of Greek-style coins to pay for commodities and goods

a.) Increased commercial exchange b.) Price of Gold and Silver Falls - minting begins (due to Alexander’s conquests which exposed precious metals to the market)

CONVERGING INFLUENCES IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH ASIA 1.) Mountain passes lie between Tibet and Plateau of Iran - offering the shortest route and were crossed by Alexander armies that brought cultural and political changes to the region 2.) Importance of the Silk Road Influences from the Mauryan Empire 1.) Alexander’s occupation of the Indus (327 - 325) allowed for the largest empire foudned by Chandragupta Mori - led a series of successful military expeditions in Northern India a.) Magadha Kingdom 2.) THE REGIME OF CHANDRAGUPTA a.) Magadha (located on lower Ganges Plain in southeastern India) i.) Rich in iron ores and fertile rice paddies ii.) Elephant herds - mainstay of the Military b.) Rose to power through the Mauryan family - who seized power through military skill and economic power after Alexander’s retreat i.) Served as the model for later Indian empires c.) Chandragupta (321 - 297) - Vaishya Caste from Punjab region who observed Alexander and his forces - inspiring to become powerful military and political leader i.) Pushed his forces westward beyond the Ganges to the “Five Rivers” Indus and it tributaries and along the border of the Seleucid kingdom (1) Seleucus Nicator of the Seleucid Empire invades Mauryan territory but cannot match Chandragupta’s defenses (a) Treaty signed d.) Seleucid Relations i.) Ceded Afghanistan to the Mauryan Dynasty (1) Use of garrison towns and maintained Greek culture ii.) One of the Daughters of Seleucus sent to Mauryan court at Pataliputra (1) Ambassador, Megasthenes - made observations of Mauryans in book Indica iii.) Mauryan sent elephants e.) Indica i.) Depicted a well-ordered and highly stratified society divided into seven groups (1) Use of honored rituals to reinforce social identity ii.) Trade Networks (1) Roads with mileage stones (a) Soldiers and traders iii.) Military Caste system that emphasized service and discipline

3.) THE REGIME OF ASOKA a.) Asoka (r. 268- 231 BCE) was Chandragupta’s grandson who ruled almost all of South Asia i.) 261 - last campaign against Kalinga (kingdom on the east coast of the South Asian Peninsula - situated on the Bay of Bengal (1) Gruesome - 100K Mauryan soldiers killed and 150K were forcibly relocated b.) Sickened by the operation - Asoka converts to Buddhism i.) Edict - that reformed his devotion to buddhism (1) Constructed stupas or domed monuments marking burial sites of relics of the Buddha ii.) Dhamma - tolerance of others, obedience to natural order, and respect for all earth’s lifeforms - ruled in accordance to this concept (1) Praised benefits of agrarian progress and banned large scale cattle sacrifice c.) Asoka’s Rule i.) Issued decrees chiseled on stone pillars and boulders - selected by likelihood to congregate (1) Explained Buddhist faith (a) Local languages (2) Some in dialects of Sanskrit - published in northwestern regions in Greek and Aramaic (old Persia administrative script) (a) Eleventh Major Rock Edict ii.) Supposed to function as a unifying ideology - binding together an immense landmass and diverse people (1) Controlled 3 Million Square Miles (Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, all of India (2) 50 - 60 Million Population d.) Empire did not last long after Asoka’s death i.) Erected a monument at Sarnath at the Deer Garden - where Buddha gave first sermon (1) Four lions faced four directions - representing universal rule (a) Represent Indian version of the Persian royal symbol The Seleucid Empire and Greek Influences 1.) Influenced by Alexander’s military conquests of Asia and the Punjap (defeated several rulers of Gandhara in 326 BCE) - placed garrisons in these regions for protection of acquisitions (towns for soldiers) a.) Would serve as hubs for Hellenistic culture i.) Ghazi, Kandahar, Kapisi, and Bactra (modern Balkh) - resembled Greek polis (1) Colonnaded main street lined by temples, theater, gymnasium (education), administrative center and marketplace 2.) Seleucus Nicator (358 - 281 BCE) - ruler of the successor state (Seleucid Empire)

a.) Established garrison cities in which soldier married locals and started families integrating customs i.) Official Language - Greek w/ traditional languages The Kingdom of Bactria and the Yavana Kings 1.) Seleucid State took over entirety of the Persian Empire - including central Asian and South Asian territories - in which Bactria broke away in 200 BCE to establish a strong state in Pakistan a.) Indo-Greek Cities - included indian residents that lived in a city with similar features of the Greek polis - still revered Indian gods and patrons 2.) Served as a bridge between South Asia and the Greek Mediterranean a.) Supplied the Greeks with elephants - vital for armies b.) Spread Hellenistic ideals to cities in the Gandhara region i.) Demetrius - invaded India in 200 BCE - establishes the Yavana Kings - derived from “Ionia” meaning Greek speakers 3.) Evidence a.) Archeological remains of Greek town discovered in Samarkand - in Uzbekistan b.) 1960s - Ai Khanoum - find ruins of an entire Greek city i.) Possibly the capital of the Bactria kingdom (1) Characteristics (a) Palace complex (i) Administrative center, storage rooms, and library (b) Gymnasium, theater, arsenal, temples and elite residences (i) Temples - served as centers for patron god's Athena and Heracles (ii) Zoroastrian (c) Columns w/ Corinthian capitals (d) Roads (i) Divided into lower and upper parts 1. Lower - temples 4.) Menander - adopted both Indian and Greek ideals a.) Currency - bore his regal image - Basileus, Soter, Menandros (King, Savior, Menander Nomadic Influences of Parthians and Kushans 1.) Nomads quickly rise up and retake control of region of central and southwest Asia - but adopt Hellenistic ideals 2.) THE PARTHIANS a.) Origins i.) Turkmenistan - settled in region of Iraq and Iran - followed ideals of the Persians (1) Pastoralists/ Steppe (Mounted Horseback Warfare) ii.) Driven out by the Xiongnu Confederacy in East Asia b.) Parthian Shot - arrow shot from a bow with great accuracy and long distance - on a galloping horse c.) Rome - became arch-enemies - but also did not stop trading and Hellenistic values from establishing in these regions

i.)

Greek essential language for commercial activities

3.) THE KUSHANS a.) Led by Chief Yuezhi - who unified the tribes and established the dynasty along Afghanistan and the Indus River basin b.) Characteristics i.) Illiterate - but later adopted Greek as official language ii.) Coin (1) Featured second Kushan king - Wima Kadphises and the Hindu god Shiva w/ his cow iii.) Other Hellenistic Ideals (1) Located on the Silk Road (a) Commercial activities done in Greek (i) Purchased silk and Indian goods iv.) Introduction of the Warhorse Culture and Stabilization of the Trading Routes (becomes a major segment of the Silk Road THE TRANSFORMATION OF BUDDHISM 1.) Blending ethical and religious traditions - beginning among Yavana (Greek) city-states where Buddhism was more pronounced a.) Menander - claimed that Buddha was a God - w/ discussion with Buddhist sage Nagasena i.) Recorded in Milindapanha (Questions of King Milinda) India as a Spiritual Crossroads 1.) Culture influenced by long distance trade via Seagoing or Land as India becomes a hub for trade in which results in a wealthier form of Buddhism emerged a.) Monks lived elegantly and stupas were extravagantly The New Buddhism: The Mahayana School 1.) Mahayana Buddhism - produced by mixing nomadic, Hellenistic, Persian, and Mesopotamian culture with traditional a.) Assumed the Buddha was a deity - not a wise human being b.) Appealed to foreigners and immigrants who traded or settled in India - welcoming all peoples 2.) Buddha’s teachings - life’s suffering and renunciation of desire to end suffering and achieve nirvana a.) Reincarnation 3.) Mahayana Buddhists’ Teachings - Bodhisattvas - enlightened demigods - delayed doing so to help others attain it a.) Buddha-lands (spiritual halfway points) b.) Enabled all individuals - classes to move from a life of suffering into happy existence c.) Avalokiteshvara - Demigod who proclaimed his willingness to stay in this world and guide people out of trouble (mainly caravan traders and sailors) 4.) Teachings of Asvaghosa (80-c, 150 ce)

a.) Biography of the Buddha - Buddhacarita i.) Set the Buddha’s life story in the commercial Kushan Empire - instead of the Shakya republic (where he actually lived), was born as a prince and only became aware of human suffering after experiencing heavenly revelations Cultural Integration 1.) Depictions of Buddha inscribed on sculptures, stupas, shrines, and art a.) Gandharan Art - gray schist rock art utilized in northern Kushan b.) Marhuran Art - red sandstone art in central region of India 2.) Realism a.) Realistic human form - rather than symbolic styles 3.) Appealing to Diverse backgrounds - art reflected spiritual system a.) Clothes of patron figures resembled figures in accordance to climate i.) Share faith but retain ethnic and regional differences 4.) Kushan Rule and Shared Culture a.) Architecture - Hellenistic/ Pseudo-Hellenistic Culture b.) Music - lyre (small version of the harp), flute, cymbals, drums, and xylophone c.) Carvings - - wine d.) Horse - Importance discussed in Buddha’s history / ties in nomadic culture THE FORMATION OF THE SILK ROAD 1.) 1st Century BCE - merging of trade routes (China to the West) - forming the Silk Road a.) First used to trade frankincense and myrrh for copper, iron, tin, gemstones, and textiles A New Middle Ground 1.) Long-distance exchange alters political geography of Afro-Eurasia a.) Borderlands become imperial centers - Middle East (Commercial center for Mediterranean and India) 2.) China left politically and culturally intact from European influence - protected by the Himalaya and Pamir Mountains Nomads, Frontiers, and Trade Routes 1.) Nomads sent out armies that linked entire regions and facilitated trade and interactions between distant communities a.) Disease immunity b.) Arrival of the Chariot in Central Asia - pastoral peoples linked North China to Turkestan (Xinjiang), Mongolia, and Manchuria i.) 600 BCE - horseback archery 2.) Xiongnu - eastern Asian steppe of Mongolia a.) Bronze technology b.) Successor - the Kushan Dynasty 3.) Kushan Dynasty - linked the t...