Wtwa - Cultures And Their Powers Among Different Religions Chapter 14 PDF

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CHAPTER 14 CULTURES OF SPLENDOR AND POWER (1500-1780) INTRODUCTION 1.) 1664- 16 year old (girl) from provinces of New Spain asked for permission to attend university in capital of Spain (mastered Greek logic, taught Latin, and excellent in Mathematics); she was a woman and her thinking was against the Catholic Church a. Entered a convent in Mexico City where she studied science and mathematics, composed poetry b. Sor (Sister) Juana Ines de la Cruz – was the name of this girl, and she was resistant against ‘old’ ways of thinking i. Died of a plague in 1695 c. Church responded by ordering the burning of her books and was only intervened by Viceroy’s wife 2.) Big Idea – Conflict between New Ideas and Old Ways a. Commerce – created riches that supported arts, architecture, and science b. Experimentations – provoked attempts to subdue innovation and arose discomfort

TRADE AND CULTURE 1.) 1500 – Most Dynamic Culture: Asia a. China and Islamic World – spice and luxury trade flourishes and allows rulers to establish stability and centralize government b. Trade contributes to spread of knowledge to distant peoples and foreign cultures 2.) Promotion of adjustment to new cultures a. Americas and South Pacific – contact, conquest, and commerce undermined indigenous cultural life and transfers were not equal i. Native Americans – adapted to European missionizing by creating mixed forms of worship (but because of pressure) 1. European colonization was spreading culture 3.) Patronization of the Arts legitimized power and cultural sophistication of rulers a. Europe – enlightened absolutists restricted clergy and nobility, hired bureaucrats who endorsed knowledge b. Middle East – brought artists and artisans in to give Islamic flavor to their cities c. Japan and China – looked for artists to extol their achievements 4.) Each society retained core aspects of individuality – pride of own heritage while introducing new ideals CULTURE IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD 1.) Muslim elites generously fund cultural development (because they were expanding)

a. Supported new schools, building projects and produced books, arts, and luxuries because it gave them prestige 2.) Three Distinct Regions of Islamic World a. Ottomans b. Safavids c. Mughals

The Ottoman Cultural Synthesis 1.) 16th Century – Ottomans have a vibrant culture and balanced both religious divisions (Sufi and Ulama) and Military/ Administration and Clerics a. Religious freedom for Christians and Jews 2.) RELIGION AND LAW a. Cultural Unity and Administration i. Sultans acknowledge the silence of the sharia (Islamic Holy Law) and develop comprehensive laws to bridge differences among social and legal system 1. Mehmed II (conquered Constantinople) began reforms a. Recruited young boys (instead of nobles) for training as bureaucrats or military men and made them report directly to Sultan 2. Suleiman the Magnificent and the Lawgiver – compiled a comprehensive legal code that detailed subjects rights and duties, proper clothing, and Muslims in relation to non-Muslims 3.) EDUCATION a. Three Educational Systems i. Civil and Military Bureaucrats 1. Schools based in Topkapi where graduates would staff the civil and military bureaucracy ii. Ulama 1. Students from elementary school (reading, writing, numbers) would attend higher schools called madrasas (law, religious science, Quran, and regular sciences) where graduates would join the Ulama iii. Sufi 1. Tekkes taught devotional strategies and religious knowledge b. Education created linkages between ruling elite and orthodox religious elite and was highly endorsed, over religious activity i. Made important advances in Astronomy/ Physics, History, Geography, and Politics 4.) SCIENCE AND THE ARTS a. Ottomans take interest in works of European science (some translated into Turkish in 18th Century)

i. Ibrahim Muteferrika (Hungarian Muslim) sets up printing press in Istanbul in 1729 – published works of Europeans including Copernicus, Galileo, and Descartes 1. Ulama later closed off this link b. Combined inherited traditions with new elements in art i. Portraiture becomes popular after Italian painter Gentile Bellini visits Istanbul – composed a portrait of Mehmed II ii. But the Ottomans were not interested in western literature and music – believed that Allah gave Islamic world a monopoly on truth and enlightenment c. Tulip Period (first half of 18th Century) i. Flower was the symbol of the Sultan and was actively grown by Mehmed and Suleiman ii. Warriors wore undergarments embroidered with tulips to ensure victory iii. Elites grew tulips and lavished arts with designs, sponsored tulip festivals d. Grand Vizier Damat Ibrahim (r. 1718-1730) i. Restored order and loosened ulama’s power and sanctioned consumption of luxury goods

Safavid Culture 1.) Safavid Empire in Persia did not last as long as the Ottoman although it gave a significant home to Shiism a. Similar to Fatimids 2.) THE SHIITE EMPHASIS a. Founded under Turkish tribesmen following a populist form of Islam but shifted from Sufism and Sunni Islam to Shiism, based on older Persian traditions i. Highest expression in the capital of Isfahan (1598 – 1722) b. Similarities with the Ottomans i. Blended a political and religious system with Shiism and Loyalty to the royal family ii. Established institutions similar to the madrasa – and Ulama promote Shiite orthodoxy c. Shah Abbas I (r. 1587-1629) i. Established Isfahan – and hired artists and architects to design a city that would create an earthly representation of a cultural and heavenly paradise. 3.) ARCHITECTURE AND OTHER CULTURAL PRODUCTIONS a. Sought to project both absolute power and accessibility i. Dwellings were enclosed and fortified buildings – that enhanced ruling power via concealment b. Isahan’s Great Plaza (83K square meters – only slightly smaller than Tiananmen Square) i. According to 17th Century English visitor – “is without a doubt as spacious, as pleasant, and aromatic as any market in the universe

c. Other aspects of intellectual life reflecting elites’ aspirations, wealth, and commitment to Shiite principles i. The King’s Book of Kings – artists demonstrated three-dimensional representation and ability to harmonize different colors ii. Weavers – ornate and beautiful silks and carpets for trade iii. Artisans painted tiles, mosaics for mosques and other buildings 1. Calligraphy Power and Culture under the Mughals 1.) Developed a culture that was broad and open due to ruling over a large non-Muslim population a. Valued art and learning and welcomed non-Muslims (Political and Judicial systems controlled by Islam) but Hindus and Buddhists shared flourishing learning, music, arts, and architecture 2.) RELIGION a. Flexibility – primary commitment to Islam, imperial court patronized other beliefs (displaying a tolerance that earned widespread legitimacy (In Europe – religions fractured the states) b. Emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605) – fulfilled the promise of Islamic high culture who was also a popular ruler that allowed common people to converse in his court i. Studied comparative religion and hosted debates among Hindu, Muslim, Jain, Parsi, and Christian theologians and developed a new religion “Divine Faith” that mixed Quranic, Catholic, and other influences (emphasized virtues of piety, prudence, gentleness, liberality, and yearning for God. ii. Had a Hindu and Christian wife, as well as Muslim wife 1. Was very tolerant of various religions c. Din-I Ilahi – reflected Akbar’s desire to strengthen his position against the ulama and interest in philosophical skepticism d. Abulfazl – advisor of Akbar who composed the Akbarnamah (Book of Akbar) – describe Akbar as receiving kingship as a gift of god because he was a true philosopher and Sufi 3.) ARCHITECTURE AND THE ARTS a. Tombs and Mosques built by Akbar’s predecessors blended Persian, Indian, and Ottoman elements b. 1571 – Akbar orders construction of Fatehpur Sikri – residences for nobles, gardens, drinking/ gambling zone, and school devoted to studying language acquisition in children c. 1630 - Shah Jahan orders the construction of tomb in Agra for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal i. Taj Mahal (took 20 years and 20K workers to construct) – was a 42 acre complex that included a main gateway, a garden, minarets, and mosque 4.) FOREIGN INFLUENCES VERSUS ISLAMIC CULTURE a. Francois Bernier (17th Century) – wrote about the philosophical interests of Danishmand Khan (appointed by Aurangzeb to governor of Delhi)

i. Khan read about French Gassendi and Descartes and studied Sanksrit treatises to understand different philosophical traditions 1. Ordered the removal of all non-Islamic places of worship 2. Intellectuals debated metaphysics, astronomy, medicine, mathematics, ethics and use for practice of Islam 3. Women were allowed to pursue the arts b. Nobility lived affluently and was well influenced by foreign trade and consumed exotic goods from China and Europe i. Silver – enhanced money economy and nobility’s lifestyles ii. Assimilated military technology (hired Europeans into army as gunners and engineers, weapon makers, and arms dealers) 1. However did not accept all European ideals – rejected Mercator’s Maps of the World (1617) presented by English East India Company (no one could read or understand it) c. Muslims did draw inspiration from outside world – China (not Europe) i. Most still considered Christian (although worthy military rivals) as rude barbarians CULTURE AND POLITICS IN EAST ASIA 1.) Similar to Islamic World, Chinese had a rich and vibrant scholarly and artistic tradition that was due to a booming imperial market (not patronage) 2.) Japan – prosperity promotes cultural dynamism and promoted Confucianism on the basis of social position, age, gender, and kin (social hierarchy) a. Decentralized political system allowed different cultural influences to spread – including European practices

China: The Challenge of Expansion and Diversity 1.) Although increasingly connected with the outside world in 16 th and 17th Century but cultural flourishing during the period came from internal social changes 2.) PUBLISHING AND THE TRANSMISSION OF IDEAS a. Decentralization of book production (woodblock and moveable type printing was present in China for Centuries) i. No centralized system of censorship, unauthorized opinions circulated freely b. Late Ming era – burgeoning publishing sector catered to the diverse social, cultural, and religious needs of educated elites and urban populations i. Europeans had access to collections of Chinese materials ii. Books and other luxury goods were more affordable 1. 1615- Confucian classics cost only half a tael of silver (low-level private tutor could earn forty taels a year (this means small personal libraries could be developed)

a. Publishers offer various works (guidebooks (patrons of the arts, travelers, or merchants), handbooks, almanacs, encyclopedias, morality books, and medical documents iii. Study Aids for the Civil Service Examination 1. 1595- Beijing scandal over the news that a second-place graduate produced a verbatim of the examination a. 1615- top graduate plagiarized the work of winning essay (decline in learning and rise in memorization) iv. Women began to penetrate the male domain 1. Anthologies of women’s poetry were popular 2. Restrictions increase – remarriage of widows and premarital sex (forbidden), morality restrictions through printing of plays and novels 3.) POPULAR CULTURE AND RELIGION a. Those who had poor literacy or were illiterate absorbed cultural values through oral communication, ritual performance, and daily practices i. Ming attempted to regulate by appointing village elders as guardians of local society or “village compacts” for responsibility and proper conduct and observation of laws. b. Outside official networks – villagers practiced various religious and cultural activities i. Honored local guardians ii. Patronized Buddhist and Daoist temples iii. Pilgrimages – drew villagers to markets (restaurants, brothels, entertainment – gossip) 1. – reinterpretation of official norms to serve own purpose c. Manifesting of cultural flourishment in fervor associated with popular religion and cultural i. Did not believe in a supreme being – enforcement of orthodoxy was entirely political if they were a “threat” however 4.) TECHNOLOGY AND CARTOGRAPHY a. Mastering nature’s operations – the compass, gunpowder, printing press, and others i. Astronomy and the Calendar 1. Determine best dates for planting b. Europeans were in awe of Chinese expertise – but still tried to promote knowledge in European science i. Jesuit Order served in Imperial Astronomy Bureau c. Cartography i. 1136- Chinese cartographers could draw to scale (valued written text over visual) 1. China was placed at center (highly distorted size) a. Did not include the Americas d. Europeans and Chinese Resistance

i. 1583 – Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci brought European maps to China in hopes of demonstrated Earth being spherical – China was just another country (Ming Empire criticized – “China as a small unimportant country” e. Chinese understanding v. The World i. Chinese felt they were superior and often compared the features of outsiders and did not have a complete understanding 1. Portuguese – 7ft tall, eyes like a cat, mouth like oriole, ash-white face, etc. 2. France and Portugal were confused 3. England and Sweden were thought to be controlled by Holland

Cultural Identity and Tokugawa Japan 1.) Tokugawa had interest in European culture – unlike China a. Dutch and limited contacts with Russians – interest in Japanese culture 2.) NATIVE ARTS AND POPULAR CULTURE a. 16TH and 17TH Centuries – the Imperial court in Kyoto were the main patrons of Japanese culture (consisting of the shogunate, religious institution, and upper class i. Developed elite culture of theater and stylized painting 1. Masked theater (No) and elegant ritual for making tea and engaging in contemplation was favored by Samurai and Daimyo 2. Calligraphy was a proof of refinement for upper-class men who painted tea utensils ii. Culture of Urban Society – Artisans and Merchants 1. Purchased works of fiction and colorful prints made on carved wood blocks 2. Geisha – female entertainers 3. Kabuki – type of theater that combined song, dance, and skillful staging to dramatize conflicts between duty and passion a. 1629 – Shogunate banned female actors – in which male actors had to impersonate roles b. Most culture chronicled around common people instead of higher classes i. “The Floating World” (ukiyo) and woodblock prints depicting it as ukiyo-e (e means picture – used by urbanites ii. Actors, musicians, courtesans, and others having “low morals” now become idols 1. Upper class samurai partook in culture (was meant for lower class) c. Literacy surges as novels sell around 10K – 12K copies i. Edo had 60 booksellers and hundreds of book lenders – which allows books to spread to wider public that could not afford to buy them 3.) THE INFLUENCE OF CHINA a. Chinese imprints left in Japanese history

i. Japanese scholars wrote imperial histories of Japan in Chinese style – while Chinese law codes were present in Japan ii. Nagasaki – Japanese traveled to the region to meet with Zen Buddhist masters and Chinese residents, some Chinese monks constructed temples in Kyoto and Edo b. Buddhism grows but does not overshadow Shinto i. Shinto – “The way of the Gods which was found throughout the country in the form of shrines 1. Time-honored beliefs in spirits (Kami) that were associated with the land (mountains, waterfalls, etc.) and activities 2. Women served as shamans with special divinatory powers called Mikos c. Shinto and neo-Confucianism – issued moral and behavioral guidelines i. 1762- Greater Learning for Females – made Confucianism understandable to nonscholars as it outlined social roles that stressed hierarchy based on age and gender ii. Merit became important in determining place in social hierarchy 1. Shoguns adopt benevolent administrational practices for the peoples’ benefit d. Some scholars promoted traditions from the past i. Formalized a Japanese religious uniqueness and denounced Confucianism and Buddhism as a foreign contaminant and attempted to reinterpret the Japanese intellectual lineage and cultural superiority 4.) EUROPEAN INFLUENCES a. Portuguese was the common language of East Asia – even Dutch used it when communicating with i. 1670 – Japanese interpreters accompany Dutch merchants due to ability to speak and read Dutch ii. 1720 – Shogunate lifts ban on foreign books 1. “Dutch learning” – European ideas iii. 1745 – Japanese-Dutch dictionary develops and the first official School of Dutch Learning th b. By 18 Century –networks of exchange and foreign trade allows foreign ideas to spread into Japan i. Only because they could be put to good use

THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN EUROPE 1.) 17TH and 18TH Century – The Enlightenment – spreading of faith in reason and in universal rights and laws that encompassed broader developments in literacy, critical thinking, and decline in religious persecution in which thinkers attempted to convey ideas in hope of transforming political and social institutions a. Why was this possible?

i. Widespread patronage networks – which was extended to lower aristocracy and bureaucratic/ commercial elites b. Abandonment of Christian belief in God’s mysterious tampering with natural forces and human events – Enlightenment thinkers wanted to see the world in different ways Origins of the Enlightenment 1.) Crisis in Europe during 17th Century a. Civil and religious wars, dynastic conflict, and famine – bankrupt Spanish, cause chaos in France, English king is executed, and Dutch earn independence i. Spread of Protestantism b. 1750 – larger groups of the population began joining intellectuals who wish to turn backs on religious strife 2.) What caused the Enlightenment? a. Reformation and Counter-Reformation – raised literacy and diffused science b. Europeans were increasingly connected due to the New World Commercial Markets

The New Science 1.) Expansion of the Astronomy Age a. Nicolaus Copernicus and Galileo Galilei i. Heliocentric theory (Copernicus) and observations of the moon (Galilei) th 2.) 17 Century scholars committed themselves to experimentation, calculation, and observation (scientific inquiry) laid out by Sir Francis Bacon (1561- 1626) a. Real science entailed formation of a hypothesis that could be tested in controlled experiments b. Developed the Scientific Method 3.) Isaac Newton – defined the universal laws that applied to all matter and motion, criticized older conceptions of nature, and set forth the laws of motion in Principia Mathematica 4.) Gradual change with political advantages a. British Royal Society – Charles II (Crown backed scientific progress and great minds back the Crown) b. Louis XIV founding of the French Royal Academy of Sciences 5.) Science expands from the court to the local elites and becomes increasing popular a. Marquise de Chatelet-Lomont – built a laboratory in her home and translated Newton’s Principia into French b. 1763 – Diamante Medaglia Faini delivered an oration recommending that women become affluent in Science 6.) Science did not outweigh Religion or local customs and was often censored by governments along w/ radical thinkers being punished a. Enlightenment still persisted

Enlightenment Thinkers

1.) Enlightenment thinkers and the Movement a. Believed in the power of human reason and perfectibility of humankind – but rejected the medieval belief in man’s sinful nature and helplessness in the face of earthly evils i. Voltaire (1694 -1778) 1. Criticized torture of criminals ii. Denis Diderot (1713 -1784) 1. Despotic tendencies of French kings Louis XIV and Louis XV iii. Adam Smith (1723 -1790) 1. Exposed mercantilism b. Enlightenment thinkers trusted nature and individual human reason and distrusted institutions and traditions i. Jean-Jacques Rousseau – “Man is born good; but society corrupts him.” ii. John Locke – sovereignty of the people 1. Social contract theory – if a government became tyrannical that it violated the contract, therefore rebellion was a just right given to the people c. Spre...