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Market Analysis Report Structure Ben Johnson 1150 words

We use our memory to collect and organise information from past experiences. Yet, even in our most vivid memories, the specifics are often lost on us (Loftus & Palmer, 1974). In this study, it will be argued that the human memory for 1

details of past events is not reliably accurate. This thesis will be supported through Loftus and Palmer (1974), and Neisser and Harsch (1992) studies, which point towards the unreliability of memory and its capacity to be manipulated. Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) study found significant variance between participants recollection of a car crash based on the experimenter’s word choice when asking about the incident. Neisser & Harsh’s (1992) study asked participants to fill out a questionnaire the day after the explosion of the Challenger Space Shuttle and then the same questionnaire three years later. The study found that most questionnaires had significant inconsistencies, despite the participants high confidence in their memory of the event. Loftus and Palmer’s study (1974) investigated how the phrasing of questions could influence participants recollection of a car crash. 45 students participated in this study in which they were shown films of car accidents and asked to estimate how fast the cars were going. The experiment’s independent variable was the verb choice used to describe the crash when asking participants how fast the car was going. The levels of the independent variable were the verbs in either; smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted. The dependent variable was the speed estimated by participants which was measured by asking how fast in mph they thought the car was going upon impact. It was found that the verb choice when asking about the speed of the car impacted upon how fast the participant estimated the car was travelling. More dramatic words such as smashed and collided elicited a higher speed estimate than words like contacted or hit. This study conducted by Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed that our brains capacity to recall details of past events is not reliably accurate and lacks general consistency. The study was not without its limitations however. One limitation was 2

having all participants as students, which are not representative of the general population. As students are typically younger they are likely to be less experienced drivers than an older demographic and as a result less confident in estimating the speed of the vehicle. This lack of certainty may have resulted in the participants been more influenced by the word choice of the question [ CITATION Psy16 \l 3081 ]. The lack of ecological validity is another limitation of this study. Having been conducted in a heavily controlled, obviously experimental environment, this study is limited in its realism and therefore its applicability towards real-world situations. The way someone recalls details from a real car accident may be vastly different from how they recall a video of one in a laboratory [ CITATION Wil18 \l 3081 ]. The high level of control in this experiment, however, also functioned as a strength for this study. The controlled environment of the study meant that variables such as the severity of the accident remained constant to measure the effect of only the independent variable. Another strength of this study was its use of experimental methodology to clearly establish a cause and effect relationship. The study used and controlled a singular independent variable in word choice to determine the dependent variable of speed estimate. This allowed for a causation relationship to be identified [ CITATION Lof \l 3081 ]. This relationship supports the paper's hypothesis that the mind's memory for information is unstable and unreliable. The limitations of this study don’t majorly affect the applicability of the findings to the hypothesis and can be amended in more expansive future research. Neisser and Harsch study (1992) investigated the stability of memories over time and the reliability of ‘flashbulb memories’, which are highly detailed, memory snapshots. In this experiment, 106 participants completed a questionnaire about the Challenger Space Shuttle explosion detailing the events and circumstances 3

surrounding the disaster. The independent variable of this study was when the participants were administered the questionnaire, with the two levels been the day after the incident and 3 years later. The two dependent variables of the experiment were the accuracy of the participant's memory as well and their confidence in it. The first variable was measured by comparing the details of the two questionaries and asking participants if they remember their original participation and the second variable was measured by asking participants how confident they were in their recollection of the event. The findings showed that participants were very confident in their recollections, however, were largely inaccurate, with the mean score been 2.95 out of 7 questions answered correctly. Additionally, only 25% of the participants remember taking the questionnaire at all. The findings from Neisser and Harsch study (1992) show the instability and unreliability of memories over time. A limitation of the study, in its application to this paper’s thesis, was the lack of experimental control. The participants in this experiment were not contrasted with a control group that were recalling normal memories. Therefore, multiple external variables could play a factor in the inaccuracy of participants responses [ CITATION APP18 \l 3081 ]. Another limitation of the study is that due to the data been collected through a self-reported questionnaire, it is very hard to verify the accuracy of the participant's initial recount of events. This initial questionnaire is important as it functions as the framework used to evaluate the overall accuracy of the participant's response. A strength of the Neisser and Harsh’s study was its high ecological validity, meaning the findings can be generalised to real-life scenarios. This is because the study was conducted in response to a realworld event rather than an artificially generated one [ CITATION Wil18 \l 3081 ]. Another strength of the study was its substantial sample size of 106 participants. 4

Large pools of participants allow for greater accuracy and confidence in findings [ CITATION Jon18 \l 3081 ]. It also allows for anomalies in data to be more easily identified. The reliability in the study’s data combined with its applicability to realworld scenarios validifies the usefulness of its findings. The limitations of this study undermine the findings regarding ‘flashbulb memories’, however, still provide conclusive findings on the stability of memories over time. This study supports the thesis that memories are unreliable, demonstrating that even memories we are highly confident in, can be heavily inaccurate. In this paper, it was argued that human memory is not reliably accurate in its capacity for recalling details from past experiences. This thesis was supported by the findings of Loftus & Palmer’s (1974) study and Neisser & Harsh’s (1992) study. Loftus and Palmer’s findings showed that memories are volatile and can be easily manipulated, whilst Neisser and Harsh’s study found that memories destabilise over time, even those we have high confidence in. Further research should be conducted on the memory’s accuracy and susceptibility to manipulation to evaluate the reliability of memory-based evidence such as police reports and eyewitness testimonies.

Bibliography 5

AP Psychology. (2018). Neisser and Harsch (1992). Retrieved from AP Psychology: https://www.appsychology.com/IB%20Psych/IBcontent/Studies/Neisser %20and%20Harsch.htm Gouvier, W. D. (2018). Ecological validity. Retrieved from Encyclopedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/science/ecological-validity Mcleod, S. (2014). Loftus and Palmer. Retrieved from SimplyPsychology: https://www.simplypsychology.org/loftus-palmer.html Neisser, U., & Harsch, N. (1992). Phantom flashbulbs: False recollections of hearing the news about Challenger. Cambridge University Press, 9-31. Palmer, E. F. (1974). Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction: An Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory. University of Washington, 585589. Yogi, P. (2016). Loftus and Palmer (1974) – Eyewitness Testimony. Retrieved from Psych Yogi: http://psychyogi.org/loftus-and-palmer-1974-eyewitnesstestimony/ Zamboni, J. (2018). The Advantages of a Large Sample Size. Retrieved from Sciencing: https://sciencing.com/advantages-large-sample-size-7210190.html

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