Anaphy reviewer introduction to anatomy to tissues from Seeley\'s Anatomy and Physiology PDF

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ANAPHY REVIEWERI. Introduction Human Anatomy – study of normalstructures of the human bodyAnatomy – ”cut into”Oxygen – provides energy to metabolicactivities. Human Physiology – study of normalfunctions of the human bodyAnatomyA. Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy – withoutaid of microscopes,- Systemic Ana...

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ANAPHY REVIEWER I. 

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Introduction Human Anatomy – study of normal structures of the human body Anatomy – ”cut into” Oxygen – provides energy to metabolic activities. Human Physiology – study of normal functions of the human body

Anatomy A. Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy – without aid of microscopes, -Systemic Anatomy – study by systems e.g cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory - SURFACE ANATOMY – external features -Regional Anatomy – regions -Anatomical imaging – x-ray, MRI, CT scan, ultrasound B. Microscopic Anatomy -Cysology – cells -Histology – tissues C. Embryology – study of development of fetus from conception to birth D. Neuroanatomy – study of nervous system Developmental anatomy – studies the structural changes that occur between conception to adulthood. Anatomical anomalies – physical characteristics that differ from the normal pattern. -Blue baby syndrome – certain blood vessels arising from an infant’s heart are not attached on their correct locations

Physiology A. Cell Physiology – examines process in cells B. Systemic Physiology – functions of organ systems C. Neurophysiology – focuses on the nervous system D. Cardiovascular physiology – deals with the heart and blood vessels Pathology – medical science dealing with all the aspects of disease, with an emphasis on the cause and development of abnormal conditions Exercise physiology – focuses on the changes in function and structure caused by exercise Chemical level - involves interaction between atoms Cells – basic unit of life Organelles – small structures that make up cells ATP (adenosine triphosphate) – molecule cells use for energy Tissue – composed of a group similar cells and the materials surrounding them. Organ – composed of two or more tissue types that perform one r more common functions. Organ system – group of organs that together perform a common function Organism – any living thing that is considered as whole Characterisitics of Life A. Organization – refers to the specific interrelationships among the parts of an organism and how those part interact to perform specific functions B. Metabolism – chemical reactions taking place in an organism.

-abitlity to use energy to perform vital functions such as growth, movement and reproduction. C. Responsiveness – organism’s ability to sense changes in its external or internal environment and adjust to those changes HOMEOSTASIS – maintenance of balance of the body to the environment Variables – values which can change e.g. body temperature  Constant – organ systems; cannot change When at a cold environment – blood vessels constrict to conserve body heat When at a hot environment – blood vessels dilate to disitate body heat.

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D. Growth – increase in size of all parts of organism. E. Development – changes an organism undergoes through time Differentiation – change in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized Morphogenesis – change in the shape of tissues, organs and the entire organism. F. Reproduction – formation of new cells or organisms SYSTEMS OF THE BODY A. Integumentary System – provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Organs present: skin, hair, nails, sweat glands

B. Skeletal System – Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Organs present: bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints. C. Muscular system – produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Organs present: muscles D. Lymphatic system – removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintain tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Organs present: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes E. Respiratory system – exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood pH. Organs present: lungs, respiratory passages F. Digestive system – mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, elimination of wastes Organs present: mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs G. Nervous system – major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes and intellectual functions Organs present: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors. H. Endocrine system – major regulatory system that influence metabolism, growth, reproduction Organs present: glands, pituitary that secrete hormones I. Cardiovascular system – transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in

the immune response and the regulation of body temperature Organs present: heart, blood vessels, and blood J. Urinary system – removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Organs present: kidneys, urinary bladder, ducts that carry urine K. Reproductive system Female – produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development Organs present: ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands Male – produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. Organs present; testes, penis Body Regions 

Anatomical position – standing upright -face forward -hands at the sides -palms facing forward

Organizational level of the body (pababa) -chemicals -cell -tissue -organs -organ system -organism Body regions  Head -upper extremities  Neck -lower extremities  Trunk -thorax -abdomen -pelvic cavity -perineum  Study directional terms

Nine abdominal regions  Right hypochondriac region –  Epigastic region – stomach, gallbladder, pancreas -Acute hemorrhagic pancreatitis  Left hypochondriac region  Right lumbar region – kidney (retroperitoneal)  Umbilical region – small intestines, large intestines -Intestinal parasitism  Left lumbar region – kidney (retroperitoneal)  Right iliac region  Hypogastric region – urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, uterus/prostate gland  Left iliac region Retroperitoneal – organs attached at the posterior body wall -do not have mesenteries -kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, parts of the intestines, and urinary bladder Four abdominal quadrants RUQ – gallstones, hepatitis( /itis/ means inflammation) Icteric sclerae – yellow cornea if patient has inflammation in the liver LUQ – stomach, large intestines, spleen RLQ – small intestines, appendix, ovary, ureter e.g. appendicitis, uretolysis, ureter stones, ovarian cyst LLQ Body cavities Diaphragm – divides thoracic to abdomen Thoracic cavity - is divided into right and left parts by a median partition called the mediastinum Organs present: heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, blood vessels and nerves

Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys Pelvic cavity – urinary bladder, part of large intestine, internal reproductive organs Female – perineum Abdominopelvic cavity – the abdominal and pelvic cavity are not physically separated Serous membranes – line the trunk cavities and cover the organs within these cavities. Visceral – in contact to the organ itself Parietal – outside of the organ Pericardium – serous membrane of heart Parietal pericardium - small fluid Pericardial effusion – accumulation of fluid to the heart Pleura – serous membrane of lungs Pleural effusion – accumulation of water in the pleural cavity Atelectasis – collapse of the lungs Pleural cavity - line the inner surface of the thoracic wall, the outer surface of the parietal pericardium, and the superior surface of the diaphragm. Peritoneum – serous membrane of stomach Peritonitis – inflammation of peritoneum Mesenteries – consist of 2 layers of peritoneum fused together. -anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the organs.

Cell -basic unit of life Virus – not living organism  Do not have cell Function of cells 1. Cell metabolism and energy use 2. Synthesis of molecules 3. Communication 4. Reproduction and inheritance Principal parts of the cell 1. Cell membrane – forms the outer boundary of the cell 2. Cytoplasm – located between the cell membrane and the nucleus. -gives shape to the cell 3. Nucleus – not organelle – DNA -directs cell activities; control center of the cell Prokaryote – w/out nucleus Eukaryote – with nucleus Parts of the cell 1. Plasma membrane (cell membrane) – lipid bilayer of phospholipids and cholesterol Function – outer boundary of cells; controls the entry and exit of substances Phospholipids – proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterol 2 major types of molecules  Phospholipids  Proteins 2. Nucleus – enclosed by nuclear envelope, double membrane with nuclear pores, contains chromatin – dispersed thin strands of DNA and associated proteins, present only in interphase -largest organelle Function – control center of the cell, DNA within the nucleus regulates protein synthesis and therefore the chemical reactions of the cell

DNA – hereditary material of the cell 3. Ribosome – RNA and proteins from large and small subunits, some are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas free ribosomes are distribute throughout the cytoplasm -protein factory Function: serves as site of protein synthesis 4. Rough ER – Membranous tubules and flattened sacs WITH attached ribosomes -proteins produced by RER will be transported to the golgi apparatus Function: synthesizes proteins and transport them to the golgi apparatus 5. Smooth ER - Membranous tubules and flattened sacs WITHOUT attached ribosomes Function: manufactures lipids and carbohydrates; detoxifies harmful chemicals; stores calcium 6. Golgi apparatus – flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other -numerous in pancreas and salivary glands Function: modifies, PACKAGES, and distributes proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use. 7. Lysosome – membrane-bound vesicle pinched off golgi apparatus  Digestive system of the cell  Contains enzymes  Garbage disposal of the cell 8. Peroxisome – serves as one site of lipid and amino acid degradation; breaks down hydrogen peroxide 9. Proteasomes – tubelike protein compleses in the cytoplasm Function: breaks down proteins in the cytoplasm 10. Mitochondria – spherical, rodshaped, or thread-like structures;

enclosed by double membrane; inner membrane forms projections called cristae -organelles produced energy in the form of ATP -more abundant at parts of body which are active -contain their own DNA Function: major sites of ATP 11. Centrioles – cylindrical organelles located in the centrosome, a specialized zone of the cytoplasm that serves as the site of microtubule formation. Cytosol – fluid portion of the cytoplasm which contains the cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic inclusions -cytoplasmic matrix -contains 70% water  Endoplasm  Exoplasm – gel stage Cytoskeleton – supports the cell and holds the nucleus and other organelles in one place. -responsible for changes in cell shape and movement of cell organelles Cytoskeleton consists 3 groups of proteins 1. Microtubules – hollow tubes composed primarily of protein units called tubulin. 25 nanometers in diameter with walls about 5nm thick 2. Actin filaments – small fibrils, about 8 nm in diameter, that forms bundles, sheets, or networks in the cytoplasm. -provide structure in the cytoplasm and mechanical support for the microvilli -mostly in muscle cells 3. Intermediate filaments – protein fibers about 10 nm in diameter that provide mechanical strength to cells e.g. intermediate filaments support the extensions of nerve cells Inclusions – found in the cytoplasm

 Not essential part of the cell Lipochromes – pigments that increase in amount with age Cilia – facilitate the movement of materials over the surface of the cell Flagella - much longer than cilia, propels sperm cells Microvilli – increase the surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption or secretion Transcription – information stored in DNA is copied to form mRNA Translation – mRNA goes to ribosomes, where it directs the synthesis of proteins

Cell Division -includes nuclear division and cytoplasmic division Mitosis – replication of the cell’s nucleus and cytokinesis is division of the cell’s cytoplasm Mitosis s divided into four phases  Prophase - chromatin condenses to become visible as chromosomes -each chromosomes consists of 2 chromatids joined at the centromere -centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell -spindle fibers form -nucleoli disappear -nuclear envelope degenerates  Metaphase – chromosomes align at the center of the cell  Anaphase – chromatids of each chromosome seperate at the centromere -each chromatid is then called chromosome -chromosomes migrate to opposite poles  Telophase – chromosomes unravel to become chromatin -nuclear envelope and nucleoli disappear Cytokinesis – begins with the formation of the cleavage furrow during anaphase

-it is complete when the plasma membrane comes together at the equator, producing 2 new daughter cells Intracellular – inside the cell Extracellular – outside the cell Phospholipids – form a lipid bilayer, a double layer of phospholipid molecules, because they have a polar (charged) head and a nonpolar (uncharged) tail -Hydrophilic (water-loving) (polar) – exposed to aqueous extracellular and intracellular fluids of the cell. -phosphate needs -Hydrophobic (water-fearing) (nonpolar) – face one another in the interior of the plasma membrane -doesn’t allows water solute to pass through it Proteins and phospholipids – biggest back of cell membrane Fluid-mosaic model – concept of the plasma membrane suggest that the plasma membrane is neither rigid nor static in structure but is highly flexible and can change its shape and composition through time. Cholesterol - other major lipid in the plasma membrane, limits the movement of phospholipids, providing stability to the plasma membrane Proteins 1. Integral protein – transport medium, occupies the entire thickness of the cell membrane -channels gates of transport to intracellular to extracellular. 2. Peripheral protein – functions on enzyme – chemical reactions won’t happen without enzyme -catalyze chemical reactions

Carbohydrates -responsible of cell to cell adhesion and recognition -immunologic response Passive transport – higher concentration to lower concentration -Solute – consists of 1 or more substances -Solvent – predominant liquid or gas Diffusion – movement of solutes from a are of higher solute concentration to an area of lower solute concentration Viscosity – measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow Osmosis – movement of water to higher concentration to lower concentration Selectively permeable – means that the membrane allows water but not all the solutes dissolved in water to diffuse through it Aquaporins – water channel proteins Osmotic pressure – force required to prevent water from moving by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane. -Isosmotic – solutions with the same concentration of solute particles -Hyperosmotic – if one solution has a greater concentration of solute therefore greater osmotic pressure -Hyposmotic – more dilute solution with lower osmotic pressure Isotonic – equal and NO movement Hypertonic – more solute; water will go OUT of the cell therefore it will SHRINK called crenation Hypotonic – water will ENTER the cell therefore it will swell then BURST called lysis Tonic – refers to the tendency f a cell to swell or shrink

Osmotic – refers to the concentration of the solutions Facilitated diffusion – helps protein filtration -carrier mediated passive membrane transport process that moves substances into or out of the cell from a higher to lower concentration. -does not require metabolic energy to transport substances across the cell membrane. Active transport – movement of area of lower concentration to higher concentration -needs ATP Secondary active transport – involves the active transport of an ion such as sodium, out of a cell, establishing a concentration gradient, with a higher concentration of the ions outside the cell Vesicular transport – movement of larger volumes of substances across the plasma membrane through the formation or release of vesicles in the cytoplasm. Endocytosis – uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a vesicle. Phagocytosis – “cell-eating” solid particles are ingested and phagocytic vesicles are formed -important in eliminating harmful substances from the body Pinocytosis – “cell-drinking” smaller vesicles form and they contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather that particles Hypercholesterolemia – common genetic disorder characterized by the

reduction in or absence of low-density lipoprotein receptors on cell surfaces.

limited by the number of available transport proteins.

TISSUES Exocytosis – secretory vesicle then move to the plasma membrane, where the vesicle membrane fuses with the plasma membrane and the vesicle contents are expelled from the cell e.g. secretion of digestive enzymes by the pancreas and secretion of mucus by the salivary glands Integral membrane protein – penetrate deeply into the lipid bilayer Peripheral membrane protein – attached to the inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer Marker molecules – cell surface molecules that allow cells to identify other cells or other molecules. Glycoproteins – proteins with attached carbohydrates Glycolipids – lipids with attached carbohydrates Attachment proteins – allow cells to attach other cells or to extracellular molecules Cadherins – proteins that attach cells to other cells Integrins – are proteins that attach cells to extracellular molecules Transport protein – integral proteins that allow ions or molecules to move from one side of the plasma membrane to the other. -Specifity – means that each transport protein binds to and transports only a certain type of molecules -Competition – result of similar molecules binding to the transport protein -Saturation – the rate of movement of molecules across the membrane is

Are collections of specialized cells and the extracellular substances surrounding them Histology – study of tissues Biopsy – process of removing tissue samples from patients surgically or with a needle Autopsy – examination of organs of a dead body to determine the cause of death 

Endoderm – the inner layer, forms the lining of the digestive tract and its derivatives Mesoderm – middle layer, forms tissues such as muscle, bone, and blood vessels Ectoderm – outer layer, forms the skin Neuroectoderm – portion of the ectoderm which becomes the nervous system Neural crest cells – group of cells that break away from the neuroectoderm

Epithelial tissues – covers and protects surfaces, both outside and inside the body Apical surface – not attached to other cells Lateral surface – attached to other epithelial cells Basal surface – attached to a basemement membrane Basement membrane – specialized type of extracellular material secreted by epithelial and connective tissue

Classification of epithelial tissue  

Simple - squamous, cuboidal, columnar (ciliated, nonciliated) Stratified – squamous (keratinized, nonkeratinized ) e.g. skin, mouth, throat, esophagus,

anus and vagina, cuboidal, columnar, transitional  Pseudostratified – ciliated, nonciliated pseudo – “false” Goblet cells – pseudostratified columnar epithelium contains goblet cells, which are specialized columnar epithelial cells. Contains abundant organelles such as, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles  Desmosomes – disk-shaped structures with specially adhesive glycoproteins that bind cells to one another and intermediate filaments that extend into the cytoplasm of the cells e.g. skin 

Hemidesmosomes – similar to one-half of a desmosome, attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane

Tight junctions – hold cells together and form a permeability barrier  Formed by plasma membranes of adjacent cells Adhesion belt – of glycoproteins is found just below the tight junction  Located between the plasma membranes of adjacent cells and acts as a weak glue that hold cells together Gap junction – small, speci...