Anatomy and Physiology Notes for 1st year Students PDF

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Language of AnatomyI. The Anatomical PositionThis position refers to a person [whose]: Body stands erect (upright) Face directly facing forward The upper limbs hanging to the sides Palm facing forward Legs are straight Feet are (a bit) apart and flat on the floor. To avoid confusion, all relational ...

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Language of Anatomy I. The Anatomical Position This position refers to a person [whose]: • Body stands erect (upright) • Face directly facing forward • The upper limbs hanging to the sides • Palm facing forward • Legs are straight • Feet are (a bit) apart and flat on the floor. To avoid confusion, all relational descriptions use or are based to this anatomical position.

Superior

Inferior

Anterior/Ventral* Posterior/Dorsal

Medial Lateral Intermediate

Supine – Anterior (Front) surface facing up, palms are facing downward, and feet is pointing upwards Prone – Anterior (Front) surface facing down, head turned to side, palms are facing upward, and heel is facing upwards.

Ipsilateral Contralateral Proximal

II. Directional Terms Terms used to describe body parts relative to each other.

Distal

[Reminder: Your right, the patient’s left]

Superficial Deep

Above or up; refers to the upper part of a structure or the body Below or down; refers to the lower part of a structure or the body Front or “goes first” ; front of the body. Back or “that which follows” ; refers to the backside of the body Towards the midline; on the inner side of Away from the midline Between a more medial and a more lateral structure

On the same side of the body as another structure On the opposite side of the body as another structure Nearest; or close to the point of attachment/the origin of the structure Distant; or father from the point of attachment/the origin of the structure Structure close to the surface of the body Toward the interior of the body or away from the surface of the body

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III. Anatomical Planes

Sagittal Plane- runs vertically (“|”) through the body and separates into left and right parts. - Midsagittal Plane/Median Plane – passes through the midline; divides the organ or body into equal right and left halves - Parasagittal Plane – does not pass through the midline but divides the organ into unequal halves Horizontal Plane/ Transverse/ Cross-sectional Plane – runs parallel to the surface of the ground (“—”) dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. Frontal/Coronal Plane - runs vertically (“|”) through the body and separates into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts. Longitudinal Section – cut along the length of the organ - Oblique Section – cut made diagonally across the long axis; at an angle bet. the transverse plane and either sagittal or frontal plane.

Upper Limbs

IV. Body Regions

Cephalic (Head)

Cervical (Neck)

Skull – body part of the head that protects the brain Facefront portion of the head; where the eyes, nose, mouth, etc. are located Trunkcontains the chest,

Lower Limbs

abdomen, pelvis, back Chest - found between the neck and abdomen anteriorly Abdomen – found between the chest and pelvis anteriorly Back – Posterior portion of the trunk that is between the neck and the buttocks Shoulderupper limb attachment point to the shoulder girdle* Upper arm – from the shoulder to the elbow Forearmelbow to the wrist Wrist connects hand to forearm Hand- includes the palm and the fingers Buttocks – posterior rounded area in the pelvis Thigh attached to the pelvis Leg – from the knee to ankles Ankle attaches foot to leg Foot composed of sydelacruz | 1HPH

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the soles and toes *shoulder girdle – a bone ring (clavicle and scapula) that connects the arm to the trunk

Dorsal Scapular Acromial Axillary Brachial Olecranal Antebrachial Axial

V. Anatomical Terms

Appendicular Antecubital Carpal Palmar Volar Digital

Polex Patellar Quizlet Link: https://quizlet.com/_9ch2p7?x=1qqt&i=3gvpk8 Frontal Cranial Facial Oral Mental Orbital Buccal Otic Nasal Cervical Occipital Sternal Thoracic Mammary Abdominal Umbilical Coxal Pelvic Inguinal Pubic Vertebral Lumbar Sacral

Forehead Portion of the skull surrounding the brain Face Mouth Chin Eye Cheek Ear Nose Neck Back of the Head Breastbone Chest Breast Anterior body trunk, inferior to the ribs Navel Hips Pelvis Groin Genital area Area of Spine Area of back between ribs and hips Sacrum

Crural Fibular/Peroneal Tarsal Pedal Gluteal Femoral Popliteal Sural Plantar Calcaneal

Back Shoulder Highest point of shoulder Armpit Upper arm Elbow Forearm Central part of the body which includes the head and the trunk Extremities or limbs Anterior surface of elbow Wrist Palm Antero- medial aspect of forearm Digits or fingers (upper limbs); toes (lower limb) Thumb Anterior surface of the knee Anterior surface of the leg Lateral side of the leg Ankle Foot Buttocks Thigh Posterior surface of the knee Posterior surface of the leg Sole of foot Heel

VI. Abdominal Regions

a) quadrants ; b) regions

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The abdomen is often subdivided superficially into four sections—called quadrants – by two imaginary lines (horizontal and vertical) that intersect in the navel.

Abdominopelvic cavity- another name for the abdominal and pelvic cavity as they are not separated. VIII. Serous Membranes

Quadrants – right upper and lower quadrant & left upper & lower quadrant The abdomen can also be subdivided into regions by four imaginary lines that create an imaginary tictac-toe figure on the abdomen resulting to nine regions Regions – epigastric (upper middle), right and left hypochondriac (top row), umbilical (center), right and left lumbar (mid row), hypogastric (bottom middle), and right and left iliac (bottom row) VII. Body Cavities

Serous membranes line the trunk cavities and cover the organs inside these cavities. They function to reduce friction as an organ rubs with another organ or against the body wall. Visceral serous membrane – inner membrane; visceral means organ, so remember the one that comes in contact with the organ is this membrane Parietal serous membrane – outer membrane; parietal means wall, so the outer wall membrane of the organ is this membrane The space between/inside these two membranes is filled with a thin, lubricating film of serous fluid produced by the membranes. A. Thoracic Cavity

Cranial Cavity- also called intercranial space, is the space formed inside the skull. Vertebral Cavity- contains the structures within the vertebral column and is the most narrow of body cavities. Thoracic Cavity – surrounded by the ribcage and is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm Mediastinum- the cavity that divides the thoracic cavity into left and right parts; it houses the heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus and other structures. It is located between the lungs. Abdominal Cavity- bounded primarily by abdominal muscles; contains the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, and kidneys. Pelvic Cavity- small space enclosed by bones of the pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, part of the large intestine, and internal reproductive organs

It has three serous membrane-lined cavities: a pericardial cavity and two pleural cavities.

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Pericardial Cavity- pericardial= around the heart; surrounds the heart Visceral Pericardium- covers the heart; inner membrane Parietal Pericardium- forms the outer layer of the sac around the heart. Pericardial Fluid- fluid inside the pericardial cavity

Contains the peritoneal fluid. Peritoneal= stretch over Visceral Peritoneum – covers many of the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity; inner membrane Parietal Peritoneum- lines the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm; outer membrane Mesenteries – consists of two layers of peritoneum fused together; connects the visceral peritoneum of some abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on the body wall or to the visceral peritoneum of other organs. They anchor the organs to the body and provide pathways for nerves and blood vessels to reach organs. Retroperitoneal- parietal peritoneum of organs that do not have a mesentery; closely attached to the body wall. Organs that have this peritoneum include: kidneys, adrenal glands, portion of pancreas, parts of intestine, and the urinary bladder. C. Diseases Serous membranes are commonly inflamed in response to an infection

Pleural Cavity- surrounds each lung. Visceral Pleura – covers each of the two lungs; inner membrane Parietal Pleura- lines the inner surface of the thoracic wall, lateral surface of the mediastinum and the superior surface of the diaphragm; outer membrane. B. Abdominopelvic Cavity

Pericarditis – inflammation of the pericardium Pleurisy – inflammation of the pleura Peritonitis – inflammation of the peritoneum - Appendicitis – a form of peritonitis, inflammation of the appendix (usually) due to bacterial infection. Infection of this sac can rupture its wall, releasing bacteria and causing peritonitis. Characteristics of Life

Peritoneal Cavity – serous membrane lined cavity of the abdominopelvic region. Located in between the visceral peritoneum and parietal peritoneum.

1. Organization- specific relationship of the many individual parts of an organism interacting and working together. Living things are highly organized. 2. Metabolism- ability to use energy to perform vital functions such as growth, movement, and reproduction 3. Responsiveness- ability to sense changes in the environment and make adjustments necessary to maintain life. Can be internal or external adjustments. 4. Growth- refers to an increase in size of all or part of the organism. Can be cellular or chemical in nature (i.e increase in cell #, cell size, amt. of substance in cell, etc.)

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5. Development – includes the changes an organism undergoes through time. Usually involves growth and differentiation. a. Differentiationchange in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized 6. Reproduction- formation of new cells or new organisms

3. Control center – determines the set point at which a variable is to be maintain, analyzes the input and determines the appropriate response or course of action 4. Output – control center’s response, flows through the efferent pathway (efferent = exit) 5. Effector – provides the means for the control center’s response.

Homeostasis Homeostasis; homeo = the same, -stasis = to stop; is the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body despite changes in the external or internal environment. Variable

Set point Normal range

Stimulus

Conditions that the cell requires for life/maintenance Average normal value for a variable A slight increase or decrease from the set point Changed variable; initiates a homeostatic mechanism

Homeostatic mechanisms – (usually) governed by the nervous system or the endocrine system, are mechanisms that help maintain variables near an average normal value or set point. It is initiated by a stimuli All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components: receptor, control center, and effector. It also operates in a stepwise manner

Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback mechanisms A. Negative Feedback -

KEY: Returns the variable to its normal range Is when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or resisted. Does not prevent variation but maintains variation within a normal range. Usually, stimulus is either shut off or its intensity is reduced

Example: Maintenance of normal body temperature - If the body temperature rises, sweat glands (effectors) produce sweat and the body cools - Process: thermoreceptors & the hypothalamus (receptors) detect increase in temp à hypothalamus (control center) stimulates blood vessels to relax & sweat glands (effectors) to produce sweat à this sends more blood to the surface for radiation of heat away from the body - If body temperature falls, sweat glands do not produce any sweat; instead the blood vessels constrict more than normal and blood is redirected to deeper areas of the body—conserving internal heat. B. Positive Feedback -

-

1. Receptor – type of sensor that monitors and responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) 2. Input – information, flows through the afferent pathway (afferent = approaches)

Occur when the initial stimulus further stimulates the response; hence this type of response is needed to reestablish homeostasis. Rare; as they tend to increase the original disturbance and push the variable further from the original value

Example: Birth (during the end of the pregnancy) - Process: uterus is stretched due to the baby’s size à stretching stimulates contractions of the uterine muscles (+) à sydelacruz | 1HPH

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uterine contractions push the baby against the opening of the uterus, stretching it further (++) à more contractions = more stretching à terminates when baby is delivered (+) initial stimulus (++) more stimulus Homeostatic Imbalance – disturbance in the body’s homeostasis, causing disease or illnesses. Most diseases result from the failure of negative feedback mechanisms and most medical therapy aims to aid negative feedback mechanisms. Cell Physiology Hierarchy of Organization

Cells

Tissues

Organs

System

Example: Neurons (Cell) à Nervous Tissue (Tissues) à Brain, Spinal Cord (Organs; group of nervous tissue) à Nervous System (System) Cell Anatomy

Mitochondria/ion- powerhouse of the cell; generates energy for the cell. Self-replicating organs. Located in the cytoplasm. Cellular Respiration occurs here (generates energy through Oxidative Phosphorylation) Endoplasmic Reticulum - Rough E.R – contains ribosomes in their surface that secrete proteins in the E.R - Smooth E.R – lacks ribosomes; plays a role in calcium sequestration and release Golgi Complex/Apparatus – process and package macromolecules such as proteins and lipids. Lysosomes – contain digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases) and they digest excess particles or worn out organelles. Engulf viruses and bacteria. Peroxisomes- has enzymes that get rid of the toxic peroxides; prevents autolysis. Ribosomes – large complexes of RNA and protein molecules, consist of 2 subunits that functions as an assembly line where RNA is used to synthesize protein from the amino acids. Either bound or free. Cilia - used for motility or movement of the cell Cytoskeleton fibers - skeletal support Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane - Biological membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of the cells o Animal Cells: outermost boundary of the cells o Plant Cells/Prokaryotes: has an additional cover-- a cell wall - Serves to protect the cell from the outside environment - Usually made out of a phospholipid bilayer (also called fluid mosaic model)

-

Nucleus – cell’s information center; houses genetic materials

Phospholipids – primary component of a cell membrane o Amphiphilic – part hydrophobic, part hydrophilic o Hydrophobic – fatty acid tails o Hydrophilic- glycerol head

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Composition: - Bilayer of phospholipid molecules - Cholesterol Membrane lipids are principally composed of phospholipids and sterols (Cholesterol=fatty layer); and they share a characteristic of easily dissolving organic solvents. -

Proteins: Glycoprotein, receptor proteins

Proteins are attached to or embedded in the phospholipid layers -

-

Channels- passageways for transport of substance in and out of the cell that cannot travel through the phospholipid bilayer Receptors- for hormones and other specific chemicals Glycoproteinsalso known as Carbohydrates; serve as identification markers

General Types: - Extrinsic Proteins – loosely attached with ionic bonds or calcium bridges to the electrically charged phospholipid bilayer - Intrinsic Proteins – firmly embedded in the phospholipid bilayer Functions of the Cell Membrane - Gives structure to the cell - Defines what is the intracellular and what is extracellular - Regulates what may enter or leave the cell by a process called membrane transport Cellular Transport Cellular Transport is the movement of materials across cell membranes. It is important for the separation of the intracellular environment from its extracellular environment. Concentration Gradient is the difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another. It helps move substance across the plasma membrane. - Usually, the substance will move a plasma membrane down its concentration gradient (downhill)

Cell Transport Process - May take place as either passive or active transport: Passive Movement of a substance down a concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached No ATP needed Examples: Facilitated Osmosis

Active Movement of substances against a concentration gradient

Requires the use of ATP

Diffusion, Diffusion,

Diffusion is a passive process in which the random mixing of particles in a solution occurs because of the particles’ kinetic energy.

Facilitated Diffusion utilizes carrier proteins Using channel proteins like: o Voltage gated channels- respond to the change in the electrical gradient of the outer and inner membrane (ex: action potential, GABA receptors— benzodiazepine mechanism + antiepileptic drugs) o Ligand-gated channelshas specific signal molecules which causes conformational change. o Mechanically-gated channelsrespond to stimulus (like sound, etc.) Osmosis is a type of diffusion in which there is a net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute to higher solute concentration.

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Experiment Discussion: Red Blood Cells Erythrocytes are normally spherical biconcave disc with a smooth plasma membrane. The shape is to allow the RBC to pass through narrow blood vessels. It does not allow salts in the RBC cytoplasm to get out of the cell, but it allow water to enter freely or leave the cell through the plasma membrane or cell membrane. Tonicity; tonic- tension; is the measure of the solutions ability to change the volume of cells by altering their water content.

Hypertonic Hyper- greater than A lot of solute than the cytosol inside RBCs

Causes shrinking

Crenation= shriveling

cell

Isotonic Iso- same Solution in which cells maintains it normal shape and volume

Ex: 0.9% NaCl sol’n; saline isotonic sol’n inside RBCs Normal cell size

Hypotonic Hypoless than Lower solute conc. than the cytosol inside RBCs Water enters the cell faster than they can leave Causes cell swelling that eventually bursts Hemolysis; lysis- rupture of cell

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