A&P 2 Final review - Lecture notes 1-12 PDF

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A&P 2 Final review...

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PO2 in blood should be 100 mmHg o Hypoxia o Hyperoxia PCO2 in blood should be 40 mmHg o Hypercarbia o Hypercapnea o Hypocarbia o Hypocapnea External Respiration v. Internal Respiration cycles Spirogram of lung volumes & capacities (PG 855)

Esophagus:  Some babies, milk comes up when you burp them because of immature sphincter  Some people have more acidity in their stomach (acid reflux), could lead to esophageal cancer Teeth:  Know parts of dentitions - enamel, dentin, gingiva, pulp cavity, pulp, cementum, etc.  Gingivitis  Root Canal Food Processing Steps: Ingestion --> Mechanical Processing --> Digestion --> Secretion --> Absorption --> Elimination Components of Endocrine System 

Second messengers: Which hormones need em? Steroid or protein??

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o Protein hormones need second messengers Some cells need a third messenger as well

Hypothalamus = boss  Releases some secretions  (7) + (2) hormones Pituitary Gland = side kick  Anterior lobe = 8 hormones (7)  Posterior lobe = 2 hormones (2)

Male Reproductive System:

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Testes/male gonads: o Secrete male sex hormones (androgens) o Produce male gametes (spermatozoa) Pathway of spermatozoa: testis --> epididymis --> ductus deferens --> ejaculatory duct --> urethra Accessory organs: secrete fluids into ejaculatory ducts & urethra o Seminal glands (vesicles) o Prostate gland o Bulbourethral glands Accessory Structures: accompany testis during descent o Form body of spermatic cord  Vas deferens  Testicular blood vessels, nerves, & lymphatic vessels Spermatogenesis: process of sperm production o Begins at outermost cell layer in seminiferous tubules o Proceeds towards lumen o Cells of spermatogenesis:  Spermatogonia (stem cells) - divide by mitosis  Primary spermatocytes - begin meiosis & form secondary spermatocytes  Secondary spermatocytes - differentiate into spermatids (immature gametes)  Spermatids - differentiate into spermatozoa

Embryology Four Membranes:

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Chorion Allantois Yolk Sac Amniotic Membrane o "water break" o Mucus plug falls out

Fertilization of Egg:  Acrosome Reaction = Sperm touching egg, actin binding to bindin sites on egg, breaks membrane down  Cortical Reaction = Break down cortical granules, forms fertilization membrane,  Activation of the egg = fusion occurs here  Gregor Mendel  Through his pea plant experiment, he discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance  The principle of segregation  Only one allele passes on from each parent to offspring  The principle of independent assortment  Located on chromosomes  Definitions:  Homozygous = identical alleles  Heterozygous = one of each allele  Allele = gene forms  Phenotype = the physical trait passed down  Genotype = the gene that is passed down  Monohybrid = hybrid that is heterozygous  Dihybrid = hybrid that is heterozygous for two different genes  Haploid = cell with only 13 chromosomes  Diploid = cell with 26 chromosomes  Triploid = abnormality, with more chromosomes than normal  Polyploidy = cell containing more than two homologous sets of chromosomes  Homologous chromosomes = cell has two sets of each chromosome  Multiple alleles = three or more alternative forms of genes  Pleiotropy = when one gene influences two or more seemingly unrelated phenotypic traits  Epistasis = interaction of genes that are not alleles  Polygenic traits = dominant allele adds to expression of next dominant allele  Incomplete dominance = when one allele is not completely expressed over its paired allele  Co dominance = both alleles of a gene pair are fully expressed  Sex-linked inherited disorders = hemophilia, muscular dystrophy, etc  X-linked inherited disorders = hemophilia a  Barr bodies = structure in cell nuclei of female mammals consisting of an inactive X chromosome  DNA methylation = controls gene expression  Recessively inherited disorders = sickle cell anemia, tay-sachs disease, CF, etc  Dominantly inherited disorders = huntingtons, marfans, tuberous sclerosis, neurofibromatosis

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Late acting gene = can remain in a population if they had beneficial effects in the past, but can have harmful effects at later ages  Morphogenesis = origin and development of morphological characteristics  Organogenesis = process by which the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm develop into the internal organs of the organism  Induction = Results in gene differentiation in reproduction, and possible differentiation of the shape of the embryo  Apoptosis = programmed cell death Chromosomal disorders:  Chromosomal number alteration = mutations due to an excess or lack of chromosomes  Trisomy  Monosomy  Tetrasomy  Chromosomal structure alteration = when the structure of chromosome pairs are mutated/misformed  Breakage of chromosome  Deletion  Reversed position...