Assessment 1 - Essay Literacy and Numeracy PDF

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Student Registration Number: 481212

6106 ECHILD Core Skills Literacy and Numeracy

29.11.2013

Assessment 1 - Essay

Do babies and children need to learn and model language and number concepts to develop them or are language and number concepts an innate process for children? This essay intends to illustrate, elucidate and demarcate critically on an extensive range of underpinning theories that endeavour to address young children and babies’ language acquisition, counting and number. The essay will undertake a magnitude of research to determine definitive links through a selection of case studies whether children’s language and number are learned or whether language and number are an innate process for children. Firstly, according to Linden (2008) all children develop and flourish in their language, writing and number skills at different stages yet it is about the process the child experiences that contours and enhances their overall learning. Therefore, according to Browne (2001; p6) harmonises that ‘young children…. do not sit passively waiting to be told what they should learn…they learn by having a go, by trying things out’. Furthermore, according to Murphy (2009) the historical pioneer Jean Piaget palliates that children have an innate and inborn curiosity towards language enabling them to develop questions and build on new and existing ideas. Therefore, Thompson and Media (2013) galvanise that Piaget believed that children have an intrinsic urge to speak from birth; Piaget postulated that children have the apparatus such as their mouth, tongue, lips and their voice box; Piaget abstained that this apparatus promoted babies’ compulsion to speak. Piaget illuminates that children emerge through four stages in their development these include the sensory motor stage, which occurs from birth to two years; this stage puts eminence on physical responses (Miller and Pound: 2010). Likewise, Gallagher and Reid (2002) fortify that Piaget devours that language development is a physical process for babies as a baby experiments with their mouth such as babbling and cooing as well as through reflex actions such as clenching, grasping and opening and closing of their hands. The pre-operational stage occurs between 2 to 7 years; Piaget irradiates that children are constantly communicating aloud about their thoughts and viewpoints as Piaget impelled that children at this age are egocentric in their speech (Mooney: 2000). The concrete operational stage transpires around age 7-12 years; children are competent in using logic and problem solving and the formal operational stage emerges at age 12 onwards whereby children start to freely express their logic and ideas in core topics and subjects (Neaum: 2012). Secondly, according to Smagorinsky (2012) Lev Vygotsky mainly opposes Piaget’s theory on language acquisition as Vygotsky meliorates the importance of play and social interaction as a means of developing their language development. Therefore, Dolya (2009) and Rhyner (2009) reinforce that Vygotsky harmonises that children need to be engrossed and absorbed in their play to enable them to explore and investigate the world around them to help them construct their language development. Likewise, Vygotsky reinforces that children will independently think out loud as they play and whilst doing this they will undertake a running commentary on what they are doing (Mitchell and Myles: 2004). To extend this, Cherry (2013) relates and revitalises to Vygotsky’s three operative stages relating to children’s language acquisition these include imitative learning,

Student Registration Number: 481212

6106 ECHILD Core Skills Literacy and Numeracy

29.11.2013

Assessment 1 - Essay

instructive learning and collaborative learning to facilitate children’s language and number concepts. Children require time and space to observe adults and peers in their environment; Vygotsky reinforced that language is a vital tool and children make prodigious use of it to guide and scaffold their thinking (Learning Theories: 2012). This highlights that children’s language acquisition is contingent on the level of interaction with people and the tools that the child collectively obtains that shapes the world around them (Vygotsky, Hanfmann, and Vakar: 2012). Furthermore, Lantolf and Appel (1994) denote that Vygotsky’s theory of the zone of proximal development is related to the child’s ability to learn with the help of an adult or peer in their environment. This rectifies that Vygotsky believes language is more a learning and observation process than an innate process; Vygotsky was keen to encourage practitioners to interpret, reiterate, support, direct and extend children’s communication through ample models of communication (Palaiologou: 2013). Thirdly, according to Shattuck (1980) another devastating and catastrophic case study relating to early language development was the case of Victor of Averyon born in 1788 – 1828 in France. Victor was reportedly abandoned or lost in the nearby woods during 1795-1797; it was ratified that Victor also referred to as the wild boy of Averyon or the federal child was found in 1800 (Dawson: 2004). Many individuals fuelled much speculation that Victor had become a belligerent creature and he was completely illiterate (Ambridge and Lieven: 2011). It was reported that Victor was deaf; he retorted to either loud or sudden noises except for the sounds that were stimulating to him usually natural, wildlife sounds and Victor possessed no competency or aptitude in his speech emitting only raucous noises (Losure: 2013). Furthermore, Borodin (2012) and Clark (2003) postulate that Victor had no socialisation skills and he was unable to interact or engage in reciprocal conversations with adults or children; he ignored people. This chastises that Victor was subject to a lack of care and attention from listening adults and children, proto-conversations and social communication (Pierce: 1992). This diligently links to Piaget’s theory on behaviourism as Piaget succinctly expresses that language helps understanding and directs children’s thinking whereas Victor’s thinking has become none existent as language is dependent on the input and this must be gained before a certain age (Carruthers: 2005). Although, Gopnik (1997) and Thompson (2008) chant that it is plausible for children to acquire words after a long period of isolation but they are unlikely to develop grammatical aspects of language after this point. Many researchers galvanise that children with prenatal, perinatal or childhood brain lesions on the left hemisphere of the brain is a process that begins very early on in a child’s lateralisation of language (Peccei: 2006). Furthermore, Chomsky (2006) and Cattell (2007) highlight another renowned theorist is Noam Chomsky who endows that language is an innate and Chomsky refers to this the language acquisition device (LAD); he installed that children could not learn language through imitation alone because language is often irregular (Chomsky: 2006). Chomsky embellishes that children naturally acquire the knowledge, skills, rules and concepts for language that allows them to produce, augment and understand utterances and new invigorating words that they have never heard (Askedal, Roberts and Matsushita: 2010). However, according to Boundless (2012) Chomsky justifies that it is fundamental that all children engage in a language enriched, vibrant and

Student Registration Number: 481212

6106 ECHILD Core Skills Literacy and Numeracy

29.11.2013

Assessment 1 - Essay

stimulating environment whereby both babies and young children can imitate language from their parents, peers and Early Year’s practitioners. Furthermore, Cook and Newson (2007) and Elman (1998) substantiate that Chomsky’s theory on language development is related to the speed at which young children acquire language. Interestingly, Whitehead (2010) illuminates that Chomsky bequeaths children acquire proficiency in their use of language from a very early age yet Chomsky gratifies that children’s’ full acquisition of words and syntax for expressing complex words and sentences takes much longer. Language is a complex process however all children have the ability to make use of nouns, verbs, vowels and consonants in their speech and by four to five years children are confident communicators and Chomsky stated that at age four years children tend to overgeneralise their speech (Hurley and Chater: 2005). Similarly, Chomsky believes that even though children’ speech is not always grammatically correct at this age they are still able to communicate through their own sounds and speech until it becomes fully developed (Chomsky: 1986 and Lanir: 2011). In addition, Newton (2011) and Saxton (2010) deliberate that a previous calamitous case study arose in Los Angeles during 1970 about a 13 year old girl who spent her childhood locked in her bedroom the child was referred to as ‘Genie the wild child’. Genie was raised in complete isolation for 10 years with virtually no human contact and Genie was unable to walk or talk (Rymer: 1993). The case study amalgamated that Genie was still making infantile noises at the age of 13 years old; many scientists and researches into Genie’s case urged that a crucial human trait is to learn language from birth onwards (Curtiss: 1977). Moreover, Bruce (2010) converses that Genie had inhuman characteristics as she had a walk that was almost bunny like and Genie often spat, snivelled and clawed and she barely spoke or interacted; she learned not to vocalise or she would be beat by her parents. It was discovered that Genie had captivating characteristics as she was able to connect and communicate with certain people without verbal speech; this was seemingly learned behaviour for Genie whereby it was a natural way of communication to make gestures through touch, glances and facial expressions (Fuchs: 2007). This abysmal case study vivifies that early language development is a ubiquitous process; children need to be absorbed in a language rich environment whereby they can learn grammatical structures, rules and concepts of language (Department for Children, Schools and their Families: 2007). It is paramount children receive daily interaction with their parents from birth onwards as children need to make solid relationships and bonds to develop their communication skills (Literacy Trust: 2006 and Donaldson: 1986). Moreover, Lemetyinen (2012) and Hall, Larson, and Marsh (2003) delineate that B.F. Skinner’s positive reinforcement theory on vocalisations in children is very influential as Skinner deliberates that vocalisations from babies should always be encouraged by their parents. Skinner reaffirmed that this would encourage a baby to want to repeat these sounds and consequently this would endeavour to promote and endorse children’s’ language development (Richelle: 2003). For example, a seven month old baby begins to babble the words “daddada” and the baby’s father smiles at the baby and chants “Good Girl, yes I’m your daddada!” (Wyse and Jones: 2007). Skinner solidifies that positive reinforcement is a central attribute to promoting children’s language and number counting skills further because a baby/child is likely to realise that the vocalisation they

Student Registration Number: 481212

6106 ECHILD Core Skills Literacy and Numeracy

29.11.2013

Assessment 1 - Essay

have made are accurate as they are being praised for it (Hampton: 2013). On the other hand, Bakhurst and Shanker (2001) edict that Jerome Bruner’s theory extended on Piaget’s theory as Bruner asserted that children learn through scaffolding; this is when children are provided with support from adults or peers to help develop and enrich their thinking. Bruner conspicuously argued that children need to be actively involved in their learning and subsequently they need real objects to discover things for themselves and it is essential that their teacher is the enabler, modeller, supporter and sharer when promoting children’s language acquisition and number (McLeod: 2012). In contrast, Nicholson, Barnsley and Mercer (2012) sermonize that both Sigmund Freud and Carl Rodgers were famous theorists who synchronized that children only learn and advance in their language and number development when they are ready for different experiences, as determined by their stage of development. Freud and Rodgers believed children’s basic needs needed to be met before they could communicate and count these include warmth, shelter, love, food, care and self-esteem otherwise a child’s language and number acquisition would deteriorate (Gates: 2001). Likewise, Freud and Rodgers were humanists who believed that children need to communicate with people with warmth, empathy and unconditional regard to enable children to gain a sense of their ideal self to enable their language to flow easily (Riley: 2007). This advocates that there is an imperative and critical period for children to develop their language and their brains must be wired and tuned in to a language rich environment before they can produce language innately according to Piaget (Lily and Green: 2010). Although, Bruner enthused that a child can be taught anything from any stage of development within their literacy and numeracy provided that it is structured, presented and obtained in the right way ( Moerk: 1977). For example, an adult may ask a child who is in the role play area playing shop “Can you add two pound coins up for me please?” and the child replied “Yes, one pound add another pound is two pounds?” and the adult sparked “well done!” (Wright, Stanger, Stafford: 2006). This exhibits the adult has taken the child to the next follow on stage in their mathematical development (The Academic Grid: 2012). Similarly, Sangster and Catterall (2009) articulated that Bruner believed that children follow a sequence of stages to develop; these include the enactive stage (0-1 years) whereby children learn through doing, the iconic mode (1-7 years) comprises of children developing mental images of number and concepts. The final stage is the symbolic mode (7 years plus) when children use symbols such as language to transfer their thoughts (Ryan and Williams: 2007). Interestingly, Piaget enunciated that children develop schemas and these schemas are a pattern of repeatable behaviour (Marshall: 1995). There are a plethora of different types of schemas a child goes through including the transporting schema e.g. moving their finger across a number line to count the number of leaps on it (Nutbrown: 2011). There is also a positioning schema this is when children place and counteract objects in a specific position e.g. a child may line up their favourite book set and count them as they go The (National Strategies Primary: 2010). Moreover, Tucker (2010) and Smith and Price (2013) proclaim that Piaget amplified that children personify an enveloping schema; this is when children conceal, wrap and enclose objects. A further schema is the vertical schema which prompts objects that go up or down e.g. a child moving a

Student Registration Number: 481212

6106 ECHILD Core Skills Literacy and Numeracy

29.11.2013

Assessment 1 - Essay

counter up the ladder on the snakes and ladders game board (Hughes: 2012). Nevertheless, Piaget illuminated that children use conservation this is where children understand that the number of items stay the same even if they are rearranged; Piaget was convinced that children are able to conserve between the ages of seven to eleven years old (MacMillan: 2009). Another important element of Piaget’s theory was disseminated around assimilation and accommodation this relates to a child processing new information to existing information e.g. a child may look at different shapes and discover shapes come in different sizes, colours and weights and children assimilate that not all shapes are the same (Mooney et al: 2013 and Carruthers and Worthington: 2006). Nevertheless, Wood (1997) captivates that language deviates through many underlying factors these include the having sensitive and attentive adults around them who listen appropriately; carefully and thoughtfully modelling appropriate language themselves. This type of language factor was founded by the eminent researcher Cathy Snow and Snow referred to as ‘Motherese’ (Mercer: 2000). To add to this, Candland (1995) enthrals another well-known case study of Amala and Kamala who were two feral girls from India who were allegedly raised by a wolf family; they were found at age 8 years and 18 months old in a wolves den in 1920. Both girls had a wolfish appearance and they would howl like wolves; this depicts that children develop sounds and language from their surroundings and they intrinsically deconstruct words from experiences (Mohammed: 2013). Kamala achieved a vocabulary of approximately 50 words by the time she died about 9 years later; this is a trivial number of vocabulary to reach as children of around this age should be reaching a vocabulary of up to 8,000 to 10,000 words (DCSF: 2010 and Child Development Institute: 2013). Kamala later obtained some intellectual functions after spending five years in an orphanage as she understood the concept of colour developed some object permanence and was able to pronounce a selection of words (Siderieus: 2011). This ultimately links to Albert Bandura’s theory of self-regulation; Bandura posits that children learn to control and regulate their emotions through their use of language (Morgan: 2011). Therefore, according to Matho (2006) Bandura significances that children express their needs and feelings through language and Bandura also developed a social learning theory and the modelling process whereby children need to be encouraged to use appropriate language and number through the use of storybooks, nursery rhymes, counting games, shape sorting and role play. Bandura believed in the modelling process whereby children need to attention, retention, reproduction and motivation (TeachersTV: 2012 and English and Mulligan: 2013). A further scandalous case study about an 8 year old child named Oxana Malaya who lived in the Ukraine was discovered; Oxana was found kept in a dog kennel in 1991 and is alleged to have lived amidst dogs for 3 years (Grice: 2006). It was apparent that Oxana elected similar behaviours that a dog exhibits such as barking, growling and snarling and she walked on four legs; Oxana had no vocabulary as she was subject to an absence of human contact (Mcdermott: 2010). Likewise, Todes (2000) ramparts that this perceptibly links to Ivan Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning whereby learning is the association of stimulus and response; this is associated with Pavlov’s behaviourist learning of language. For example, the adult asks the child “water” when the child sees water and the unconditioned stimulus of the child is “water” and their unconditioned response is

Student Registration Number: 481212 29.11.2013

6106 ECHILD Core Skills Literacy and Numeracy Assessment 1 - Essay

‘drink? Wet? Splash?’ and after conditioning the child’s conditioned stimulus and response I the child drinks the water (Saunders: 2006 and Anghileri: 2001). Another prominent case study was about John Ssebunya in 1984 when he was four years old he witnessed his father shoot his mother and fearing his life he ran into the Ungandan Forest and joined a flock of monkeys and lived up in a tree with them (Newton: 2011). Ssebunya was spotted by a young girl who attempted to rescue him yet John was terrified to approach the girl (Pound: 2006). This vivifies that children need to feel loved and cared for; Albert Ellis was another theorist who reviewed children’s psychological problems and founded that children with self-worth and insecurity issues will determine their characteristics for language in the future (Bruce and Spratt: 2011). Pavlov emphasises that an adult must train and encourage a child to say a word when they visibly see the object in order for the child to connect two things together to form sentences with their words as...