Chapter 6 Motivation - Lecture notes 5 PDF

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Chapter 6 Motivation

Motivation Forces that initiate work-related effort   

Determine direction, intensity, and persistence of the effort Originates within and outside an employee Is critical because performance is a function of motivation and ability

Motivating employees is an important organizational concern in the U.S. workforce  -

73 percent of American employees are not excited about their work

Direction of Effort What are you going to do right now?

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Intensity of Effort How hard are you going to work on it?

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Persistence of Effort How long are you going to work on it?

Motivation Theories Early (Need-Based) Theories  

Deal with the question of what determines work motivation In other words, focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill (e.g. need for power)

Contemporary (Process) Theories  

Explain how and why motivation occurs but that do not indicate any specific values or needs In other words, focus on people’s thought or cognitive processes (e.g. expectancy)

Content Theories Focus on profiling the needs that people seek to fulfill   

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory Herzberg’s Two-Factor (Motivatior-Hygiene) Theory McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

They were formulated during the 1950s and 1960s  

Although they have been heavily attacked, they are the main basis for contemporary motivation theories Many practicing managers still use these theories

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory -

Certain needs must be met before other needs can motivate  

Humans are motivated by multiple needs and those exist in a hierarchical order A satisfied need may lose its motivational potential

Higher-Order Needs -

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Self-Actualization o Highest need level: need to fulfill oneself; to grow and use abilities to fullest and most creative extent Esteem o Need for esteem of others; respect, prestige, recognition, need for self-esteem, personal sense of competence, mastery Lower-Order Needs Social o Need for love, affection, sense of belongingness in one’s relationships with other persons Safety o Need for security, protection, and stability in the physical and interpersonal events of day-to-day life Physiological o Most basic of all human needs; need for biological maintenance; need for food, water, and sustenance

Herzberg’s Two-Factory Theory    

“The primary function of any organization should be to implement the needs for man to enjoy a meaningful existence” Motivators o Job characteristics (content) associated with job satisfaction Hygiene factors o Job characteristics (context) associated with job dissatisfaction Job-Enrichment o To enrich a job, Herzberg argued that attention should be given to the work itself (job content) o “If you want people to do a good job, give them a good job to do”

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory   

Need for achievement (nAch) o The desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve problems, or to master complex tasks Need for affiliation (nAff) o The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with others Need for power (nPower) o The desire to control others, to influence their behavior, or to be responsible for others

Managerial Implications:

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Achievement, affiliation, and power needs can be considered during the selection process, for better placement Managers should create challenging task assignments or goals Effective managers have o High need for power o High need for achievement o Low need for affiliation

Content Theories Critique

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Content theories are considered questionable in terms of validity Content theories failed: o To account for individual difference o To link motivation and needs to both satisfaction and performance o To consider cultural and professional differences

Contemporary (Process) Theories   

Explain the process by which internal factor and cognitions influence a person’s motivation In other words, focus on the thought processes through which people choose one action over another in the workplace Process theories: o Expectancy theory o Equity theory o Goal-setting

Expectancy Theory

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Describes cognitive processes in choosing among voluntary responses Is based on the idea that behavior is directed toward pleasure and away from pain

Expectancy Belief that a high level of effort will result in successful performance (Effort  Performance) 

Is influenced by self-efficacy (belief that you have the capabilities needed to perform a certain task) o Based on:  Past accomplishments  Vicarious experiences  Verbal persuasion  Emotional cues

Instrumentality Belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes (Performance  Outcomes) Valence The value of the outcomes o Outcomes are positively valenced (attractive) when they satisfy needs (e.g. existence, safety, relatedness, esteem, meaning) Expectancy Theory Factors that influence the Expectancy Theory Process:  Type of motivation/What Outcomes are at work: o Extrinsic motivation – comes from external factors (e.g. pay, bonuses, promotions) o Intrinsic motivation – comes from inside the individual (e.g. enjoyment, interest, knowledge gain)

 How much the person values Money o Meaning of money – the degree to which money is seen as having symbolic value Goal Setting Theory  

Goal Setting Theory views goals as the primary drivers of the intensity and persistence of effort Goals increase performance when the goals are: o Specific o Difficult, but accepted by employees o Accompanied by feedback (especially self-generated feedback)

Goal Setting Theory Why do specific, difficult goals have positive effects?  

Assignment of a specific and difficult goal shapes people’s own self-set goals – the internalized goals that people use to monitor their own task progress Goals trigger the creation of task strategies, defined as learning plans and problemsolving approaches used to achieve successful performance

Equity Theory 

Suggests motivation depends on what happens to other people o Employees create a “mental ledger” of their outcomes & inputs o Employees compare their outcomes-to-inputs ratio to the ratio of the comparison other  Referred to as “Cognitive calculus”

Three Outcomes of Equity Theory Comparisons 1) Equity: Your ratio is equal to your comparison other’s 2) Underrewarded: Your ratio is less than your comparison other’s 3) Overrewarded: Your ratio is greater than your comparison other’s

Equity Restoration Behaviors  

Any imbalance in ratios triggers equity distress – an internal tension that can only be alleviated by restoring balance to the ratios Equity Restoration Behaviors o Change work inputs (e.g. reduce performance efforts) o Change the outcomes received (e.g. ask for a raise) o Leave the situation (e.g. quit) o Change the comparison person o Psychologically distort the comparisons o Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison person

Global Implications Are motivation theories culture-bound? -

Most were developed for and by the U.S. Goal-setting and expectancy theories emphasize goal accomplishment and rational individual thought Maslow’s Hierarchy may change order McClelland’s nAch presupposes acceptance of a moderate degree of risk concern for performance Equity theory closely tied to American pay practices

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Hertzberg’s two-factor theory does seem to work across cultures

What Do These Theories Tell Us About Compensation Systems? 

Designing Compensation Systems o Provide specific, difficult goals (Goal Setting Theory)  Lump sum bonuses & gainsharing create goals which increase productivity o Use individual monetary outcomes  Employees feel higher instrumentality (Expectancy Theory)  Employees are likely to feel their ratio is equal to their comparison others’ (Equity Theory) o Focus on employees’ self-efficacy (Expectancy Theory)...