Chapter 7 Learning Guide Educ Psychology mod PDF

Preview

Summary

Download Chapter 7 Learning Guide Educ Psychology mod PDF

Description

Skinner’s (Behavior) operant conditioning:operant conditioning, takes as its starting point the fact that many of the voluntary responses of animals and humans are strengthened when they are reinforced (followed by a desirable consequence) and weakened when they are either ignored or punished. In this way, organisms learn new behaviors and when to exhibit them and “unlearn” existing behaviors. The term operant conditioning  refers to the fact that organisms learn to “operate” on their environment (make a particular response) to obtain or avoid a particular consequence. ***The primary goal of behavior modification is to strengthen desired behaviors. Concept

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Punishment

Generalization

Discrimination

Definitions and examples Involves strengthening a target behavior—that is, increasing and maintaining the probability that a particular behavior will be repeated—by presenting a stimulus (called a positive reinforcer) immediately after the behavior has occurred. Praise, recognition, and the opportunity for free play are positive reinforcers for many (but not all) students The goal of negative reinforcement is the same as that of positive reinforcement: to increase the strength of a particular behavior. The method, however, is different. Instead of supplying a desired stimulus, one removes an unwanted and aversive stimulus whenever a target behavior is exhibited. As you study this definition, pay attention both to the action and the effect on behavior. Just as positive refers to adding, negative refers to removing a stimulus. By removing something unwanted, you encourage the student to learn new behaviors. As reducing the frequency of an undesired behavior through the use of an aversive stimulus. One approach is to do what adults have done for centuries: present some sort of aversive stimulus immediately after an undesired response. This is known as Type I punishment, or presentation punishment, and relies on such time-honored responses as scolding, paddling, ridiculing, or making a student write 500 times “I will not chew gum in class.” If this tactic fails to weaken or eliminate the undesired behavior (which frequently happens), then you can’t claim to have punished the student. From an operant perspective, you can only make that claim if the target behavior is actually reduced in frequency. ***Negative reinforcement strengthens a target behavior, whereas punishment weakens or eliminates a behavior.

Type II, or removal punishment:When an individual learns to make a particular response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same or a similar response in a slightly different situation, generalization has occurred.

Type II, or removal punishment: In discrimination, individuals learn to notice the unique aspects of seemingly similar situations (for example, that teachers are not parents, although both are adults) and to respond differently to each situation. Teachers can encourage this process by reinforcing only the desired behaviors (for instance, attention, obedience, and cooperation) and withholding reinforcement following undesired behaviors (such as inattention or disobedience).

Shaping

In shaping, actions that move progressively closer to the desired terminal behavior (to use Skinner’s term) are reinforced. Actions that do not represent closer approximations of the terminal behavior are ignored. The key to success is to take one step at a time. The movements must be gradual enough so that the person becomes aware that each step in the sequence is essential. This process is typically called reinforcing successive approximations to the terminal behavior.

***Positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement strengthen behaviors. Punishment, time-out, and extinction weaken target behaviors. Schedules of Reinforcement. ***The primary goal of behavior modification is to strengthen desired behaviors.

Fixed Interval:Fixed interval schedules: reinforce after regular time intervals;

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable Interval: reinforce after random time intervals; the length of time between reinforcements is essentially random but averages out to a predetermined interval. Fixed Ratio: reinforce after a set number of responses; FR schedules tend to produce high response rates because the faster the learner responds, the sooner the reinforcement is delivered. Variable Ratio: reinforce after a different number of responses each time; Because the occurrence of reinforcement is so unpredictable, learners tend to respond fairly rapidly for long periods of time.

. *** The primary goal of behavior modification is to strengthen desired behaviors. Concept

Shaping

Premack principle

How could you use this in the classroom? Describe a specific example in detail. ● Select the target behavior. ● Obtain reliable baseline data (that is, determine how often the target behavior occurs in the normal course of events). ● Select potential reinforcers. ● In small steps, reinforce successive approximations of the target behavior each time they occur. ● Reinforce the newly established target behavior each time it occurs. ● Reinforce the target behavior on a variable reinforcement schedule. One popular shaping technique that has stood the test of time involves having students list favorite activities on a card. Then they are told that they will be able to indulge in one of those activities for a stated period of time after they have completed a set of instructional objectives; also called Grandma’s rule because it is a variation of a technique that grandmothers have used for hundreds of years (“Finish your peas, and you can have dessert”).

Token economy

A token is something that has little or no inherent value but that can be used to “purchase” things that do have inherent value; One useful method for positively reinforcing desired behavior is a token economy—supplying students with objects that have no inherent value but that can be accumulated and redeemed for more meaningful reinforcers; Token economies — especially when combined with classroom rules, appropriate delivery of reinforcers, and response cost — are effective in reducing such disruptive classroom behaviors as talking out of turn, being out of one’s seat, fighting, and being off-task.

Contingency contracting

A contingency contract is simply a more formal method of specifying desirable behaviors and consequent reinforcement. The contract, which can be written or verbal, is an agreement worked out by two people (teacher and student, parent and child, counselor and client) in which one person (student, child, client) agrees to behave in a mutually acceptable way, and the other person (teacher, parent, counselor) agrees to provide a mutually acceptable form of reinforcement.

Extinction

Type II, or removal punishment The most straightforward approach is to ignore the undesired response. If a student bids for your attention by clowning around, for instance, you may discourage repetition of that sort of behavior by ignoring it. It is possible, however, that classmates will not ignore the behavior but laugh at it. Such response-strengthening reactions from classmates will likely counteract your lack of reinforcement.

Time out

Type I or presentation punishment: Time-out is an effective means of reducing or eliminating undesired behaviors, particularly those that are aggressive or disruptive, for both students who do and who do not have a disability. The rules for the procedure should be clearly explained, and after being sentenced to time-out (which should last no more than five minutes), a child should be given reinforcement for agreeable, helpful behavior—for example, “Thank you for collecting all the playground balls so nicely, Tommy.”

Response cost

response cost, is similar to time-out in that it involves the removal of a stimulus. It is often used with a token economy. With this procedure, a certain amount of positive reinforcement (for example, 5 percent of previously earned tokens) is withdrawn every time a child makes an undesired response. As with extinction and time-out, research confirms that response cost helps reduce a variety of problem behaviors (such as getting off-task, not following directions, and engaging in disruptive behavior) for a wide range of children...