Psychology- Chapter 5- learning PDF

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CHAPTER 5: LEARNING  Learning- Relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience.  Conditioning- Process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. - Through different kinds of experiences, people and animals acquire enduring changes in their behaviors.

Classical Conditioning  Pavlov* - Was Russian physiologist awarded a Nobel prize for his work on digestion. - Discovered and was first to study Pavlovian(classical) conditioning; studied subjective mental processes. - Recognized that stimulus under investigation did not produce a new behavior but caused an existing behavior to occur.  Classical Conditioning Terms -Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- Natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning. ex- loud noise

-Unconditioned response(UCR)Unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus. ex- fright (being scared) -Conditioned stimulus(CS)- Formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response. ex- red light(stopping), green light(going)- (neutral and conditioned are the same in long term) -Conditioned response(CR)- Learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus.

Factors that affect conditioning -Stimulus generalization*  The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, stimuli as well. - Stimulus discrimination*  The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli. -Higher order conditioning*  Procedure in which a conditioned stimulus from one learning trail functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning

trail; second conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response, even though it has never directly paired with unconditioned stimulus. -Timing*  Conditioning most effective when conditioned stimulus is presented immediately before unconditioned stimulus  Usually ½ second to a few seconds.

-Extinction (in classical conditioning)*  Gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. -Spontaneous recovery*  Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

From Pavlov to Watson The Founding of Behaviorism  Watson - Founded new approach called behaviorism. - Advocated scientific study of objectively observed behavior. - Believed all human behavior is result of conditioning and learning - Conducted controversial *Case of Little Albert* In focus: Watson, Classical Conditioning, and Advertising

 John Watson was pioneer in application of classical conditioning principals to advertising. - These principals are widely used in today’s commercials and print ads, pairing emotionevoking images with otherwise neutral stimuli, like soft drinks or new cars.

Other classically conditioned responses  Classically conditioned emotional reactions - After being involved in a serious auto accident, many people develop a conditioned emotional response to the scene of the accident. - Although the person in this accident wasn’t seriously hurt, just looking at the photo of the intersection and his totaled car makes his neck tighten up and his heart race. The smell of coffee Drug Responses - Regular use may produce “placebo response” where user associates sight, smell, taste with the drug effect. - Conditioned Compensatory Response(CCR)*Classically conditioned response in which stimuli that reliably precede the administration of a drug elicit physiological reaction that is opposite to the drug’s effects;

may be one explanation for the characteristics of withdrawal and tolerance.

Key Components Conditioning

of

Operant

 In the presence of a specific environmental stimulus (discriminative stimulus), we emit a particular behavior (operant), which is followed by a consequence (punishment). - If the consequence is either positive or negative reinforcement, we are more likely to repeat the operant when we encounter the same or similar discriminative stimulus in the future. - If the consequence is some form of punishment, we are less likely to repeat the operant when we encounter the same or similar discriminative stimuli in the future. - “A-B-C”

Operant conditioning terms Discriminative stimulus- Specific stimulus in the presence of which a particular operant is more likely to be reinforced. *Shaping- Selectively reinforcing successfully closer approximations of goal behavior until goal behavior is displayed.

*Extinction- Gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior; occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer.

In Focus- changing the behavior of others: alternative to punishment  Although punishment may temporarily decrease the occurrence of a problem behavior, it doesn’t promote more desirable or appropriate behaviors in its place.  Four strategies to reduce undesirable behaviors without resorting to punishment. 1.Reinforce an incompatible behavior. 2.Stop reinforcing the problem behavior. 3.Reinforce he nonoccurrence of the problem behavior. 4.Remove the opportunity to obtain positive reinforcement. Is spanking effective?  Spanking is a common form of discipline used in the U.S. - Some researchers believe that mid and effective spanking is not necessarily harmful. - Other research demonstrates that physical punishment is associated with increased

child aggressiveness, delinquency, and antisocial behavior. Additionally there is an increased risk that such discipline might escalate into physical abuse.

Comparing punishment and negative reinforcement Operant Process Punishment Wear a warm

Consequen ce

Effect on behavior

A friend makes hurtful but unstylish the comment, flannel shirt “nice shirt. Whose couch did you steal to get the fabric?

Decrease wearing the shirt in the future

Avoid feeling cold and uncomforta ble all day

Increase wearing the shirt n the future

Wear a Negative but reinforceme warm unstylish nt flannel shirt

Punishment  Punishment behavior is

is the process in followed by an

which a aversive

consequence that decreases the likelihood of behavior’s being repeated.  Many people confuse punishment and negative reinforcement.  Two types of punishment identified by Skinner -Positive punishment- a situation in which an operant is followed presentation of an aversive stimulus - Negative punishment- a situation in which an operant is followed by the removal of reinforcing stimulus

Reinforcement  Two forms of reinforcement* - Positive: Response is followed by the

-

addition of a reinforcing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations. Negative: response results in the removal of, avoidance of, or escape from a punishing stimulus, increasing the likelihood that the response will be repeated in similar situations.

B.F Skinner and the search for “Order in Behavior”  Believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying only phenomena that could be objectively measured and verified- outwardly observable behavior and environmental events.  Proposed that internal thoughts, beliefs, emotions, or motives could not be used to explain behavior.  Coined the term “operant” to describe any “active” behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.

 Invented the Skinner box.

Operant Conditioning  Law of effect: -Responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation. -Responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation. o Cats had to escape from a puzzle box o Process was by rail ad error o Observation led to law of effect

Operant conditioning: associating behaviors and consequences - Operant conditioning* deals with the learning of active, voluntary behaviors that are shaped and maintained by their consequences.  Thorndike* - First psychologist to systematically investigate animal learning and how voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences - Trial and error - Law of effect

In focus: evolution, biological preparedness, and conditioned fears  Seligman -Phobias seem to be quite selective. Extreme, irrational fears of snakes, spiders, heights, and small enclosed places are relatively common. -Humans biologically prepared to develop fears of objects or situations such as snakes, spiders, and heights- that may once have posed a threat to humans’ evolutionary ancestors.  Ohman and Mineka -Because poisonous snakes, reptiles and insets have associated with danger throughout the evolution of mammals, there is an evolved “fear module” in the brain that is highly sensitized to such evolutionary relevant stimuli.

Evolutionary aspects of classical conditioning  Behaviorists originally argued that learning principles applied to all aspects in the 1960s.

 Conditioned taste aversions demonstrated the importance of natural behavior patterns influenced by evolution.  John Garcia demonstrated a classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food.*  This violates standard conditioning model -Only needs one pairing -time between CS and UCs can be several hours - Particular conditioned stimulus that is used makes a difference in classical conditioning -One factor that helps explain Garcia’s results is biological preparedness.

The partial reinforcement effect and schedules of reinforcement  Early work by Skinner used continuous reinforcement: a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced  Running out of food for his rats, Skinner stretched out the pellets by not rewarding every trial and discovered the partial reinforcement effect.

 Partial reinforcement effect**: behaviors that are conditioned using partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than behaviors that are conditioned using continuous reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement  Skinner (1956) found that specific preset arrangements of partial reinforcement produced different patterns and rates of responding (schedules of reinforcement). - Fixed ratio(FR) schedule* - Variable ratio(VR) schedule* - Fixed interval(FI) schedule* - Variable interval(VI) schedule*

Contemporary Conditioning

Views

of

Operant

 Tolman -cognitive processes play important role in complex behavior learning* - although these processes cannot be directly observed, these can be experimentally verified and inferred by careful observation of outward behavior  Cognitive maps  Strengthened behavior -Used mazes with rats

Learned Helplessness*  Seligman(b. 1942) began in his research career by studying learned helplessness in dogs, and later, in humans.  He applied his findings to psychological problems, including depression.  Seligman developed techniques to each people to overcome feelings of helplessness, habitual pessimism, and depression  Learned helplessness is the phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior.  The cognitive expectation that behavior would have no effect on the environment causes a person or animal to become passive.  This can be seen in studying behavior, athletic performance, and psychological disorders such as depression management.

Operant conditioning and Biological Predispositions

 Skinner and other behaviorists firmly believed that general laws of operant conditioning applied to all animal species.  Others (like Brelands) found that an animal’s natural behavior patterns could influence the learning of new behaviors based on biological and evolutionary predispositions.  The principle of Instinctive drift* (naturally occurring behaviors the interfere with operant responses) prevented the animals from engaging in the learned behaviors that would result in reinforcement.

Type of behavior Source of behavior basis of learning Responses conditioned Extinction process

Cognitive aspects

Evolutionary influences

Classical Conditioning

Operant conditioning

Reflexive, involuntary behaviors Elicited by stimulus Associated two stimuli: CS+UCS Physiological and emotional responses Conditioned response decreases when conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone Expectation that CS reliably predicts the UCS Innate predispositions influence how easily an association is formed between a particular stimulus and response

Nonreflexive, voluntary behaviors Emitted by organism Associating a response and the consequence that follows it Active behaviors that operate on the environment Responding decreases with elimination of reinforcing consequences

Performance of behavior influenced by the expectation reinforcement or punishment Behaviors similar to natural or instinctive behaviors are more readily conditioned

Observational Learning  The Bobo Doll Study**

-Bandura demonstrated the influence of observational learning in a series of experiments conducted in the early 1900s. children watching a violent video clip seemed to imitate aggressive behavior. -Demonstrated the principal that expectation of reinforcement (by watching someone being rewarded) can act to reinforce a behavior. -Albert Bandura contends that most human behavior is acquired through observational learning....