Chapter 9 Charismatic And Transformational Leadership PDF

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Chapter Outline Personal Meaning Factors That Influence Personal Meaning Charisma Weber’s Conceptualization of Charisma Differentiating Between Charismatic and Noncharismatic Leaders

9 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

Charismatic Leadership Locus of Charismatic Leadership The Effects of Charismatic Leadership Qualities of Charismatic Leaders How One Acquires Charismatic Qualities

Learning Outcomes

Charisma: A Double-Edged Sword

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

Transformational Leadership The Effects of Transformational Leadership Charismatic versus Transformational Leadership Transformational Leader Behaviors and Attributes Transformational versus Transactional Leadership The Transformation Process

1. Describe personal meaning and how it influences attributions of charismatic qualities. p. 330 2. Briefly explain Max Weber’s conceptualization of charisma. p. 334 3. Describe the behavioral qualities that differentiate charismatic from noncharismatic leaders. p. 335 4. Explain the locus of charismatic leadership. p. 337 5. Discuss the effects of charismatic leadership on followers. p. 338 6. Describe the characteristics that distinguish charismatic from noncharismatic leaders. p. 341

Stewardship and Servant Leadership The Nature of Stewardship and Servant Leadership

7. Discuss how one can acquire charismatic qualities. p. 344

Framework for Stewardship

9. Distinguish between charismatic and transformational leadership. p. 349

Framework for Servant Leadership

8. Explain the difference between socialized and personalized charismatic leaders. p. 345 10. Explain the difference between transformational and transactional leadership. p. 352 11. Explain the four phases of the transformation process. p. 354 12. Explain the basis of stewardship and servant leadership. p. 356 13. Define the following key terms (in order of appearance in the chapter): personal meaning self-belief legacy selflessness spirituality values charisma vision

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socialized charismatic leader (SCL) personalized charismatic leader (PCL) transformational leadership transactional leadership stewardship servant leadership

Chapter 9

Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

Opening Case In 1986, Oprah Winfrey launched Harpo Productions, Inc. Two years later, in October 1988, television history was made when Harpo Productions announced that it was taking over all production responsibilities for the Oprah Winfrey Show from Capitol Cities/ABC, making Winfrey the first woman in history to own and produce her own talk show. The Oprah Winfrey Show has remained the number one talk show for 22 consecutive seasons. The show is seen by more than 48 million viewers weekly in the United States and airs in more than 120 countries. Oprah has differentiated her show from the rest of daytime talk shows by offering a self-empowering vision of hope and uplift. To capitalize on her name brand, Discovery Communications has formed an alliance with Winfrey to launch a new network that will go by the acronym, “OWN”—-Oprah Winfrey Network—-due to begin airing in 2009. Oprah will be the creative force behind the channel, developing programs on topics familiar to her predominantly female audience.1 Her popular magazine, O, sold an average of 2.4 million copies per month in 2007. Her Book Club can turn any title into a best seller. She has a satellite show, “Oprah & Friends,” on XM Satellite Radio. When it comes to popularity of celebrities, Oprah tops the list in name recognition and likeability. When people are asked whether they believe she is “an influence in today’s world,” she beats everyone else on the list. She is unmatched as a celebrity spokesperson. In an AP poll taken in 2006, Oprah was selected the best celebrity role model of the year.2 From her humble beginnings in rural Mississippi, Oprah is not only America’s richest celebrity, she is also one of the most charitable. In 1987, she created the Oprah Winfrey Foundation to aid women, children, and families. Oprah’s Angel Network, formed in 1998, also raises money for

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charitable causes. In January 2007, she opened the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy in Johannesburg, South Africa. Oprah’s goal for the academy is to find talented girls who come from difficult economic backgrounds and give them education and leadership training.3 Oprah’s legacy has established her as one of the most important figures in popular culture. Through her television, publishing, and film endeavors, Oprah entertains, enlightens, and empowers millions of viewers around the world. Opening Case Questions: 1. Why is Oprah such a popular and admired figure on TV? 2. Oprah seems to have a clear sense of her personal meaning or purpose in life. What factors do you think have contributed to her understanding? 3. What is the locus of Oprah’s charisma? 4. What effects has Oprah’s charisma had on her followers? 5. What qualities of charismatic leadership does Oprah possess? 6. Does Oprah embody the example of a socialized charismatic leader or a personalized charismatic leader? 7. Is Oprah a transformational leader, a charismatic leader, or both? Can you answer any of these questions? You’ll find answers to these questions and learn more about Oprah Winfrey’s businesses and leadership style throughout the chapter. To learn more about Oprah Winfrey, visit her Web site at http://www.oprah.com.

he last 20 years have witnessed a renewed interest in and scholarship focus on charismatic and transformational leadership.4 This growth in interest has coincided with significant geopolitical, social, and economic change. Much higher levels of turbulence, uncertainty, discontinuous change, and global competition characterize today’s work environment. The challenge many institutions face is how to continually cope with new situations in order to survive and prosper. Organizations are faced with the need to adapt or perish. Adaptation requires that organizations learn to do things differently, such as the need to transform internal cultures, empower organizational members, adapt or develop new technologies, restructure personnel and workflow

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patterns, eliminate concrete and artificial boundaries, pave the path to continuous innovation, and foster a high-involvement and risk-taking organizational climate.5 The charismatic and transformational leader, according to many scholars and practitioners, represents a new paradigm of leadership that may be capable of steering organizations through the chaos of the twenty-first century.6,7,8 In the literature, both charismatic and transformational forms of leadership are commonly discussed from two separate but interrelated perspectives: in terms of the effects that leaders have upon followers, and in terms of the relationships that exist between leaders and followers. Charismatic and transformational theories return our focus to the leader. These theories shine the light on exemplary leaders who have extraordinary effects on their followers and ultimately on entire social, cultural, economic, and political systems. According to this new paradigm of leadership theories, such leaders transform the needs, aspirations, and values of followers from a focus on self-interest to a focus on collective interest. They practice trust building to create strong commitment to a common mission. They generate emotion, energy, and excitement that cause followers to make significant personal sacrifices in the interest of the mission, and to perform above and beyond the call of duty. According to some scholars, charismatic and transformational leadership represents a shift from an emphasis on financial capital to human capital. It’s a leadership philosophy in which strategy, structure, and systems thinking are replaced with purpose, process, and people thinking—“purpose leadership.”9 Charismatic and transformational leaders often have a more heightened sense of who they are than most people do. They seem to have a clearer picture of their personal meaning or purpose in life much sooner, and seek to actualize it through active leadership. To lay the foundation for charisma and charismatic leadership, we will focus the discussion first on the concept of personal meaning. Then we will discuss the unique and complementary qualities of charisma, charismatic leadership, transformational leadership, stewardship, and servant leadership, focusing on the impact of each on individuals and the organization.

Opening Case

A P P L I C A T I O N

1. Why is Oprah such a popular and admired figure on TV? Oprah possesses the charisma and transformational qualities alluded to above. She has already left an indelible mark on the face of television. She has used her celebrity status to push for social change in our society. She has championed the cause for child abuse, poverty, domestic violence, illiteracy, and much more. Her audience represents a cross-section of the American ethnic landscape. As supervising producer and host of the Oprah Winfrey Show, Oprah entertains, enlightens, and empowers millions of viewers not just in the United States, but around the world.

Learning Outcome 1

Describe personal meaning and how it influences attributions of charismatic qualities.

Personal Meaning Personal meaning is described in terms of meaningfulness or purpose in life. A more formal definition is the degree to which people’s lives make emotional sense and to which the demands confronted by them are perceived as being worthy of energy and commitment. It is the “work–life balance” or the achievement of equilibrium in personal and official life.

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One scholar described charismatic leaders as “meaning makers.”10 Thus, personal meaning is that which makes one’s life most important, coherent, and worthwhile for him or her. The theoretical basis of personal meaning is derived from research on purpose in life (PIL). PIL represents a positive attitude toward possessing a transcendent vision for life.11 The depth (i.e., strength) and type (i.e., content of meaning associated with a goal) of personal meaning are major determinants of motivation, especially for individuals facing challenges. There is a general recognition that compared to noncharismatic leaders, charismatic leaders have a heightened sense of their personal meaning and are willing to act on it. Therefore the question becomes, what factors influence and differentiate leaders who are willing to act to realize their personal meaning or PIL from others who are less inclined to actively pursue the journey?

Factors That Influence Personal Meaning Exhibit 9.1 lists a variety of factors that influence personal meaning, derived from a review of the literature. Each factor is briefly discussed below in terms of its contribution to the personal meaning of leaders.

EXHIBIT

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h.

9.1

Factors That Influence Personal Meaning

Self-belief Legacy Selflessness Cultural heritage and traditions Activist mind-set Faith and spirituality Personal interests Values

Source: Based on G. T. Reker, and P. T. P. Wong (1988), Meaning and Purpose in Life and Well-Being: A Life-Span Perspective. Journal of Gerontology 42 (1992): 44–49.

Self-Belief Self-belief is knowing who you are based on your lifespan of experiences, motivation states, and action orientation. The search for meaning involves finding opportunities to express the aspects of one’s self that motivate subsequent behavior. Closely related to self-belief is a trait called positive self-concept. Individuals with a positive selfconcept possess emotional stability, believe in their self-worth (high self-esteem), see themselves as generally capable of accomplishing things (high generalized selfefficacy), and feel they are in control of their lives (internal locus of control). In many cases, the charismatic leader is a person who has overcome an inner conflict to realize his or her full potential and, through this process, developed a strong belief in himself or herself. The resolution of this conflict serves as a stimulus and model for followers.12

Legacy The need to leave behind something of enduring value after one’s death can be both a powerful motivator and a source of personal meaning. Legacy is that which allows an individual’s accomplishments to “live on” in the ideals, actions, and creations of one’s followers, long after his or her death.13 Charismatic leaders are driven to leave

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their personal mark on the society they serve. Gandhi advocated passive resistance and passion for truth. His legacy has influenced many subsequent social and political activists and leaders, including Martin Luther King, Jr., and Nelson Mandela. These leaders derived meaning from a realization that their legacy may provide their followers with a framework for self-development, harmony and fellowship, and a more socially desirable future.

Selflessness Selflessness is an unselfish regard for or devotion to the welfare of others. Therefore, a leader with an unselfish attitude derives motivation through concern for others rather than for oneself. Servant leadership is rooted in providing service to followers. For example, helping followers to develop and work toward collective goals may satisfy a charismatic leader’s motives and therefore make sacrifices and suffering meaningful. Examples of selfless charismatic leaders include Bishop Desmond Tutu, Mother Teresa, and Princess Diana. They were all driven by a concern for others.

Cultural Heritage and Traditions Rites and ceremonies may be used as vehicles to transfer charisma to others. Charismatic leaders of religious organizations (e.g., Martin Luther King, Jr.; Rev. Billy Graham) derive personal meaning by leading their churches, while their personal meaning helps define rites, doctrine, and ceremonies. Also, oral and written traditions may make the charismatic leader’s vision meaningful over time. For example, Frederick Douglass sought to preserve the traditions and heritage of African people by emphasizing the value of education as a vehicle for self-empowerment and growth. His determination not to live as a slave but to live proudly as a black American is part of the heritage of the African-American culture today and has added meaning to his life.

Activist Mind-Set Charismatic leaders tend to have a more activist mind-set than noncharismatic leaders. They use political and social causes as opportunities to influence change and provide a better life for their followers. These accomplishments provide charismatic leaders with meaning for their existence and satisfy their motives. Charismatic leaders have a greater sensitivity to political, societal, and organizational situations that are ripe for change. They magnify a climate of dissatisfaction by encouraging activism that heightens followers’ willingness to change the status quo. When followers are going through periods of turmoil and collective stress, they may respond to a leader who is able to give meaning to their experiences in terms of a new social or political order. For example, Oprah’s commitment to children led her to initiate the National Child Protection Act in 1991, when she testified before the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee to establish a national database of convicted child abusers. On December 20, 1993, President Clinton signed the national “Oprah Bill” into law.

Faith and Spirituality Spirituality concerns an individual’s awareness of connections between human and supernatural phenomena, which provide faith explanations of past and present experiences and, for some, predict future experiences. Supporters believe that religion and spirituality endow individuals’ lives with meaning and purpose and give them hope for a better future. Charismatic leaders face hardship and suffering while leading missions of change. They often rely on their faith for support. Faith and spirituality influence one’s meaning and purpose in life, and some argue that without meaning and

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purpose there would be no reason for charismatic leaders to endure their struggles. In addition, charismatic leaders sustain faith by linking behaviors and goals to a “dream” or utopian ideal vision of a better future. Followers may be driven by such faith because it is internally satisfying. Billy Graham, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Gandhi illustrate charismatic leaders whose purpose in life is or was influenced by their spirituality. In the end-of-book Appendix, “Leadership and Spirituality in the Workplace,” we provide more details on this topic.

Personal Interests Personal pursuits may reflect aspects of one’s personality. By engaging in meaningful personal pursuits, we may establish and affirm our identity as either extroverts or introverts, high or low risk-takers, and open- or close-minded. Hobbies and other activities of personal interest have been linked to sets of personally salient action that add meaning to individuals’ lives and leader behavior.

Values Values are generalized beliefs or behaviors that are considered by an individual or a group to be important. Values provide basis for meaning. Charismatic leadership has been described as values-based leadership. By aligning their values with those of followers, and appealing to followers’ subconscious motives, charismatic leaders may derive personal meaning from their actions.

Opening Case

A P P L I C A T I O N

2. Oprah seems to have a clear sense of her personal meaning or purpose in life. What factors do you think have contributed to her understanding? Much has been published about Oprah in books and on the Internet. It is apparent from reading through these materials that her sense of personal meaning has been influenced by all the factors described above and listed in Exhibit 9.1 on page 331. The following examples illustrate Oprah’s selflessness, values, activist mind-set, and legacy. The Oprah Winfrey Foundation was established to support the inspiration, empowerment, education, and well-being of women, children, and families around the world. Through this private charity, Oprah has directly served the needs of low-opportunity people and has awarded hundreds of grants to organizations that carry out this vision. She has contributed millions of dollars toward providing a better education for underserved students who have merit but no means. She created the “Oprah Winfrey Scholars Program,” which gives scholarships to students determined to use their education to give back to their communities in the United States and abroad. The Oprah Winfrey Foundation continues to expand Oprah’s global humanitarian efforts in developing countries. In December 2002, Oprah brought a day of joy to tens of thousands of children with “ChristmasKindness South Africa 2002,” an initiative that included visits to orphanages and rural schools in South Africa where children received gifts of food, clothing, athletic shoes, school supplies, books, and toys. Sixty-three rural schools received libraries and teacher education, which continued throughout 2003. In addition, Oprah announced a partnership with South Africa’s Ministry of Education to build a model leadership school for girls. The Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls–South Africa is now up and running. Oprah speaks openly of her strong faith and spirituality on her show every day.

From a conceptual standpoint, the stronger one’s perception of his or her personal meaning or purpose in life, the greater the likelihood that such an individual will...