Childhood & Adolescence Essay PDF

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‘A secure mother-child attachment during infancy is essential for healthy development’ Discuss.

The importance of early infant attachments cannot be denied. Every child requires a healthy infant-caregiver attachment that enables sensitivity to others feelings, the ability to form new and healthy adult relationships and normal cognitive function. In general, attachment is defined as a reciprocal, enduring relationship between infant and caregiver, each of whom contributes to the quality of the relationship (Malekpour, 2007). It was Bowlby (1953) who developed the evolutionary theory of attachment and suggested that infants have an innate tendency to form a strong bond with one primary attachment figure in order to ensure survival and act as a secure base. This relationship, more often than not is formed between the mother and the infant. According to Bowlby (1953) the quality and consistency of the maternal-infant bond is essential for social, emotional and physical child development. As a result of this theory, Ainsworth (1950) provided evidence to support Bowlby’s claims and through the Strange Situation examined the security of mother-infant relationships and classified behaviours into secure and insecure attachments. This essay will examine the importance of secure mother-infant attachments, the long lasting consequences of maternal deprivation and how this effects healthy development and briefly explore the implications of a primary mother-infant attachment on other attachment relationships. Ainsworth (1950) provided classification of two types of attachment after examining behavior styles of infants. Securely attached infants may be upset when the mother leaves, show happiness upon reunion and use the mother as a secure base to explore their surroundings. Insecure resistant infants exhibit clinginess and a lack of exploration as well as signs of extreme upset when the caregiver leaves. However, upon return the infant seeks closeness and resists efforts made by the parent. Insecure avoidant infants show no distress when the caregiver leaves and are indifferent upon their return. If they are upset while the caregiver is away they are easily comforted by a stranger. It is important to examine these attachment types and see what effect they have on parent-infant relationships. According to Bowlby (1950), an individual’s attachment classification forms the basis of an internal working model and determines how an individual views the world and develops their views on parenting, and therefore, how they respond to their own child. For example, parents who are securely attached as infants may be more sensitive and responsive to the needs of their child due to their own early experiences (Benoit & Parker, 1994.) On the basis of such observations, it is believed that securely attached infants are more socially adept and and well adjusted as they begin to grow up. In addition, they are able to form more successful relationships with other peers compared to children who are insecure/avoidant (McElwain, Booth-LaForce, & Wu, 2011). As well as demonstrating less anxious, depressed and/or socially withdrawn behaviour (Brumariu & Kerns, 2010). It would appear that children’s early security of attachment is somewhat predictive of their later psychological, social and cognitive functioning. For example, Bowlby (1973) suggests secure attachments are essential because they provide working models of positive relationships and the effects of this relationship endures over time. Whereas Lamb et al. (1985) proposes attachment types only predict later child development if their environment remains consistent. In other words, sensitive parents will continue to be responsive towards their child with behaviours that less sensitive parents are unable to provide, as well as enduring a less responsive approach to parenting.

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A vast body of research is dedicated to understanding how early experiences have long lasting effects on the overall development of a child. Shore (2001) suggested positive and negative experiences in early infancy can effect the maturation of the right hemisphere brain structure, and therefore, the psychological development of the infant. This paper examines the concept that the right hemisphere is a regulation control center which will be influenced by the mother-infant attachment formed. In relation to Bowlby’s (1969) theory, he describes an internalization capacity that enables infants to regulate emotional states based on the responsiveness of the mother towards the child’s needs. Therefore, we could assume that if a healthy secure attachment is formed, then the infant is more likely to have a steady control of regulating their emotions. This is essential in their emotional development, especially extending into adolescence and adulthood (Vondra, Shaw, Swearingen, Cohen, & Owens, 2001).

Furthermore, empirical evidence has demonstrated that the long-term effects of maternal deprivation is paramount. Bowlby (1944) constructed the ’44 Thieves’ research to examine his maternal deprivation hypothesis. This states that if an infant cannot form a continuous, warm and intimate relationship with its mother/maternal figure, then the child will find I difficult to form relationships with other people and be at risk of developing behavioural and emotional disorders. This was supported by Bowlby’s (1944) own study, 16/44 thieves had been diagnosed with affectionless psychopathy (a behvaioural disorder where individuals have a lack of self conscience, guilt and shame) and 86% of these individuals had experienced prolonged separation from their mother in early years. Compared to the remaining thieves, where 17% had experienced separation from their mother in early infancy and less than 4% of children in the non-thief category had experience separation. Clearly, this demonstrates the importance of infants forming an enduring bond with a mother figure as a way to ensure optimal development an avoid specific behavioural disorders.

The mother-infant bond is established almost automatically after birth and considered the most important attachment the infant will form (Bowlby, 1950). However, how do other infant attachment relationships relate to this observation? Although attachment theory eventually presented both parents as attachment figures, the father is considered a play companion and a secondary attachment figure rather than a principal attachment figure (Bowlby, 1982; Geiger, 1996). One of Bowlby’s key claims of an exclusive primary attachment to a mother figure was challenged by Schaffer and Emerson (1964). They found that monotropy was not a reality in many families and that the infants had formed an attachment to their fathers during their second year. Furthermore, Lamb (1997a) demonstrated that fathers were more active with their sons in the second year of life compared to daughters and mothers had more interaction with their daughters than sons. This clearly demonstrates that fathers may be important in healthy development, such as in the sex differentiation process during the infant’s early years.

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Finally, it must be emphasized that much of the attachment research put forward in this paper has a correlational basis. The purpose of correlational research is to determine a relationship between two different variables upon which theorists make assumptions about the findings. For example, Bowlby’s (1944) study made an assumption that affectionless apathy and delinquent behavior was as a result of their prolonged maternal deprivation. We cannot state there was a definite cause and effect relationship, therefore we should merely identify that there is a link between maternal deprivation and delinquency/affectionless psychopathy. Nevertheless, Bowlby, Ainsworth, Boston & Rosenbluth (1956) found that after a follow up of children that had been admitted to hospital at under 4 years old and separated from their mothers had no social or behavioural difficulties at 7 and 14 years. This highlights the inconsistency of research within the attachment topic. In conclusion, Bowlby established himself as a pioneer of the evolutionary infantmother attachment relationship and overall theory, with many researchers expanding our understanding of attachment theory (Ainsworth, 1950; Schaffer & Emerson, 1964 & Lamb, 1985). Clearly, it would make sense that researchers and theorists pay closer attention to the role of a father figure in development of children (Lamb, 1997a). There seems to be an underestimation of the role fathers play in optimal infant development. Nevertheless, despite issues with the overall methodologies of attachment research, Bowlby’s (1950) attachment theory outlines that a secure mother-infant attachment provides children with a safe base for exploration and acts as an internal working model upon which all future relationships and opinions of themselves will be based. As a result, there is a vast body of research that describes emotional, social, psychological and cognitive defects if a secure relationship is not formed with an attachment figure in the early years of life.

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References Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. Child development, 49-67. Retreived from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1127388 Bowlby, J., Fry, M., & Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1953). Child care and the growth of love. Penguin (Non-Classics). Bowlby, J. (1944). Forty-four juvenile thieves: Their characters and home-life. The international journal of psycho-analysis, 25, 19. Bowlby, J., Ainsworth, M., Boston, M., & Rosenbluth, D. (1956). The effects of mother‐child separation: a follow‐up study. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 29(3‐4), 211-247. DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8341.1956.tb00915.x Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Loss. Nueva York: Basic Books. Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: II. Separation. Anxiety and anger. London: Hogarth. Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: retrospect and prospect. American journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4), 664. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Mother–child attachment patterns and different types of anxiety symptoms: Is there specificity of relations?. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(6), 663-674. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10578-010-0195-0 Geiger, B. (1996). Fathers as primary caregivers (No. 17). Greenwood Publishing Group. Retreived from https://books.google.co.uk/books? hl=en&lr=&id=zTNICUlFwecC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=geiger+1996+infant&ots=iSYtVgJs ot&sig=RyqS-vavtDjldCvK-31irHssBSo#v=onepage&q=geiger%201996%20infant&f=false Lamb, M. E., Gaensbauer, T. J., Malkin, C. M., & Schultz, L. A. (1985). The effects of child maltreatment on security of infant-adult attachment. Infant Behavior and Development, 8(1), 35-45. doi:10.1016/S0163-6383(85)80015-1 Lamb, M. E. (1997). Fathers and child development: An introductory overview and guide. The role of the father in child development, 3(1), 1-18. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Lamb/publication/31670039_The_Role_of_the _Father_in_Child_Development__M._R._Lamb/links/00b4952399d43485f1000000.pdf Malekpour, M. (2007). Effects of attachment on early and later development. The British Journal of Development Disabilities, 53(105), 81-95. DOI:10.1179/096979507799103360 McElwain, N. L., Booth-LaForce, C., & Wu, X. (2011). Infant–mother attachment and children's friendship quality: Maternal mental-state talk as an intervening mechanism. Developmental psychology, 47(5), 1295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024094

148864 Schore, A. N. (2001). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant mental health journal, 22(1-2), 7-66. Retrieved from http://allanschore.com/pdf/SchoreIMHJAttachment.pdf Vondra, J. I., Shaw, D. S., Swearingen, L., Cohen, M., & Owens, E. B. (2001). Attachment stability and emotional and behavioral regulation from infancy to preschool age. Development and Psychopathology, 13(01), 13-33. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/

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