Childhood Adversity Essay PDF

Preview

Summary

Critically evaluate the impact childhood adversity can have throughout the life span...

Description

Critically evaluate the impact of childhood adversity on developmental outcomes across the lifespan

Childhood experiences have a deep impact on the developing brain. From the prenatal stage to the beginning of childhood, the brain goes through its most vital development and these early experiences determine whether the architecture is strong or weak (DiPietro et al.,2006). From pregnancy to early childhood, the quality of the relationships and the environment of which a child is brought up in, has a significant impact on their social, emotional and cognitive development (Monk, Spicer & Champagne, 2012). Whilst healthy development is shaped by positive adult interaction, adversities such as maternal stress, toxic stress, and physical abuse can interfere with this process, and create biological damage throughout their lifespan. This essay will explore this damage further, critically evaluating research that supports different theories and exploring the effects of adversity in prenatal, childhood and adulthood stages of life.

Four weeks after conception, the foetal brain begins to develop (Monk, Spicer & Champagne, 2012). If the mother experiences extreme trauma or stress throughout this process such as a bereavement or relationship breakdown (Kinsella & Monk, 2009), the foetus may be subjected to unhealthy levels of stress hormones which can affect the developing brain (O’Connor 2002). Research has shown that high levels of the stress hormone Cortisol present in the amniotic fluid, can impact cognitive functioning in later development, such as anxiety and emotional problems

(Bergman, Sakar, O’connor, Modi & Glover, 2007). A longitudinal study which may support this theory, examined 35 women throughout their pregnancy and the effects of anxiety on their children’s brains after birth. Using an MRI scan, results showed reduced grey matter volume, which is where sensory perception takes place such as emotion (Buss, Davis, Muftuler, Head & Sandman, 2010). However, other research suggests that maternal anxiety and depression doesn’t have any effect on the offspring, but instead showed that in contrast to their prediction, a small degree of stress could be beneficial to the child in terms of their cognitive and motor development. Suggesting that a child may develop rapidly in their physical development, but may suffer anxiety in their cognitive development (O’connor, 2002). Unlike maternal stress, other adversities may occur throughout pregnancy which display different symptoms, such as a condition called Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (Bastons-Compata & Astals, 2016). Throughout pregnancy, if the mother heavily drinks, this can have severe effects on the foetus which may not be shown until the child begins school (O’Connor, 2002). A child may display symptoms such as delays of speech and language (Monk, Spicer & Champagne, 2012), which can affect their social development such as not being able to communicate well with others. If this is left unrecognised, mental health issues could occur in adulthood such as depression, and drug and alcohol abuse (Bergman, Sakar, O’Connor, Modi & Glover, 2007). Therefore research seems to suggest that the health of the mother is crucial to the foetal development and ultimately to the healthy development of the infant in childhood.

Other forms of healthy development in childhood is the innate need to form secure attachment with their parent or primary care giver (Tucker & Mackenzie, 2012). It is

suggested that a child will use this attachment as a secure base to explore the world around them, forming social relationships and building an internal working model (Zuravin & DePanfilis, 1997). Any disruption to this may have extreme consequences throughout their emotional, cognitive and social development (Escobar, Pereira & Santelices, 2014). There are many reasons in which children may struggle to form healthy attachment with a trusting adult. One example may be if a child has been removed from their primary care giver to secondary care such as fostering (Zuravin & DePanfilis, 1997). Drugs and substance abuse tend to account for most children being in foster care (Simms, 1991). Although foster care is a form of intervention, it is most associated with attachment problems in children, because the lack of permanence damages a child’s attempts to form secure attachments (Schofield & Beek, 2005). Certain behaviours may be displayed such as crying and clinging (Howe & Fearnley, 2003), and such disruptions may lead to Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) where children have severe disturbances in relationships with others (Gean, Gillmore & Dowler 1985). Children may display behavioural symptoms of RAD such as the inability to form eye contact, and the inability to interact with other children. In adult-hood long term effects of RAD can include anger and control issues, and difficulty maintaining significant relationships with others (Escobar, Pereira & Santelices, 2014). Research has suggested that separation of a child between 6 months to 3 years of age, can increase emotional anxiety within their development, as due to lack of language skills obtained naturally at this age, they are not able to communicate their feelings and understand the situation. Whereas if a child is separated between 3-4 years of age, this may be psychologically beneficial to them as they are able to use language to cope and express how they are feeling (Zuravin & DePanfilis, 1997). Another form of secondary care is adoption. Which

unlike fostering, is a more permanent environment to form secure attachment Research initially shows rates of development are increased due to the stability of adoption, however as the child matures these rates converge with the rates in foster care (Howe & Fearnley, 2003), which contradicts the theory that adoption is more beneficial for a child in care

During adulthood, it is evitable that stress will be encountered throughout daily life. Such as missing a train, receiving a parking ticket, or losing your keys, this particular type of stress is manageable and somewhat forgettable once a solution has been reached. However, adverse childhood experiences may have a long term physical effects in adulthood from trauma that occurred years ago (Shonkoff et al, 2011). Scientists have shown that adverses in childhood can cause damage in ways that prematurely age cells and affect life longevity (Franke, 2014). Physical abuse in childhood can have a long lasting effect into adulthood regarding their physical health (Springer, Sheridan, Kuo & Carnes, 2003). This type of abuse can occur at anytime throughout a person’s lifespan, and it includes any type of intentional act causing bodily harm. Experiencing this in childhood can cause toxic stress response. Although some level of stress is inevitable, there are three main types of stress which are important to distinguish between. Positive stress response is the type of stress a child may face when attending their first day at school, or receiving an immunization, this may be characterized by a brief increase in heart rate. Tolerable stress is when a child may face a more serious situation with longer lasting effects, such as death of a loved one, or witnessing a frightening natural disaster. Such effects of this can be moderated with the support of loved ones and secure adult relationships (Shonkoff et al., 2011). Toxic stress response is the consequence of

prolonged severe adversity. This kind of stress can have damaging effects as excessive cortisol disrupts the developing brain, affecting a child throughout into adulthood (Moylan et al., 2009). Research suggests that physical abuse in early life may have an effect on the amygdala and the hippocampus which are essential for processing stress, memory and emotion. When the young brain experiences stress of a consistent level, stress hormones are constantly occurring, and biological changes begin to happen which result in the inflammatory stress response to stay activated, such as children exposed to domestic violence (Moylan et al.,2009). A study analysed the DNA of healthy happy children, and children who had been removed from toxic environments of their primary care givers. Results showed that the children who had experience adversity had epigenetic changes in nearly 3000 sites on their DNA, suggesting an altered biological change on how they may respond to, and rebound from future life stress (Franke, 2014). An animal study was conducted on rats to explore the biological effects of toxic stress. Results showed that a gene called BDNF which is responsible for making protein, and plays a vital part in learning and memory had reduced. The changes in this gene were surprisingly found in their offspring even though the offspring had not been subjected to toxic stress, suggesting that it can be inherited potentially creating a vulnerability in future generations (Shonkoff et al., 2011). Other research in animal studies, showed a longitudinal study on monkeys that had been abused by their mothers, and how they treated their offspring. Results showed that half of these monkeys were abusive to their offspring by hitting and often killing their own brood, but the other half of these abused monkeys did not abuse their offspring. It was then found that the abusive monkeys had lower levels of serotonin than the monkeys who did not inflict harm (Maestripieri, 2005). Suggesting that higher levels of serotonin

may prevent generational abuse. It has also been suggested that the impact of physical abuse, can impact adult physical health. Symptoms such as back pain, migraines, binge eating and stomach pain were found to be related back to those who had suffered physical abuse than those who did not (Tietjen & Peterlin, 2011). A study surveyed 17,000 patients using the Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire on 10 types of adversity. For each question a patient answered ‘yes’ too, a score of one point would be marked down for results. Results showed that 64% of patients had encountered at least one of the adversities. Strong correlations between scores and a number of patient factors suggested new ways to view human health. This research has suggested that people with an ACE score of four or more, may be twice as likely to develop cancer than someone who has not faced any form of adversity in childhood. Researchers questioned that if someone had encountered childhood adversities, then they may be more likely to smoke, drink or take drugs which would therefore inevitably encounter health problems in future. Although this was sometimes the case, this did not fully account for the correlation that was found between childhood adversity and physical health impact in later life. For example, those who did not smoke or drink, or have high cholesterol, and were not overweight and had an ACE score of 7 or more, still had a higher chance of heart disease of 360% than those who had an ACE score of 0 (Felitti et al., 1998).

Research in childhood adversity shows a wide variety of effects throughout the lifespan. Prenatal adversities have been explored, such as maternal stress and how this can affect the foetal developing brain such as emotional problems like anxiety. This research was then compared with the outcomes of Foetal Alcohol Spectrum

Disorder, this evidence suggested that children’s social development may be affected. Attachment in children was then explored, discussing the differences in foster care and adoption and how these attachments affect them throughout the life span. Finally the Adverse Childhood Experiences questionnaire was discussed, where research suggested that physical abuse can cause toxic stress in childhood, and affect physical health in adulthood later in life. Ultimately early intervention may provide a solution to reverse effects of childhood adversity, and thorough safeguarding training to recognise signs of abuse in children and adults, to therefore report quickly and provide early help before a traumatic event causes life long disruption (Franke, 2014).

References Bastons-Compta, A., & Astals, M. (2016). Foetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) diagnostic guidelines: a neuropsychological diagnostic criteria review proposal. Journal Of Neuropsychopharmacology & Mental Health, 01(02). http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2472-095x.1000e104 BERGMAN, K., SARKAR, P., O'CONNOR, T., MODI, N., & GLOVER, V. (2007). Maternal Stress During Pregnancy Predicts Cognitive Ability and Fearfulness in Infancy. Journal Of The American Academy Of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(11), 1454-1463. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/chi.0b013e31814a62f6 Brown, M., Thacker, L., & Cohen, S. (2013). Association between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Diagnosis of Cancer. Plos ONE, 8(6), e65524. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0065524 Bucci, M., Marques, S., Oh, D., & Harris, N. (2016). Toxic Stress in Children and Adolescents. Advances In Pediatrics, 63(1), 403-428. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2016.04.002 Buss, C., Davis, E., Muftuler, L., Head, K., & Sandman, C. (2010). High pregnancy anxiety during mid-gestation is associated with decreased gray matter density in 6–9-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(1), 141-153. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.07.010 DiPietro, J., Novak, M., Costigan, K., Atella, L., & Reusing, S. (2006). Maternal Psychological Distress During Pregnancy in Relation to Child Development at Age Two. Child Development, 77(3), 573-587. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.14678624.2006.00891.x

Escobar, M., Pereira, X., & Santelices, M. (2014). Behavior problems and attachment in adopted and non-adopted adolescents. Children And Youth Services Review, 42, 59-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.04.001 Felitti, V., Anda, R., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D., Spitz, A., & Edwards, V. et al. (1998). Relationship of Childhood Abuse and Household Dysfunction to Many of the Leading Causes of Death in Adults. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245-258. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8 Franke, H. (2014). Toxic Stress: Effects, Prevention and Treatment. Children, 1(3), 390-402. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children1030390 GEAN, M., GILLMORE, J., & DOWLER, J. (1985). Infants and Toddlers in Supervised Custody: A Pilot Study of Visitation. Journal Of The American Academy Of Child Psychiatry, 24(5), 608-612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s00027138(09)60063-7 HOWE, D., & FEARNLEY, S. (2003). Disorders of Attachment in Adopted and Fostered Children: Recognition and Treatment. Clinical Child Psychology And Psychiatry, 8(3), 369-387. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/13591045030083007 HUIZINK, A., ROBLES DE MEDINA, P., MULDER, E., VISSER, G., & BUITELAAR, J. (2002). Psychological Measures of Prenatal Stress as Predictors of Infant Temperament. Journal Of The American Academy Of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(9), 1078-1085. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004583-20020900000008 Jones, K., & Smith, D. (1973). RECOGNITION OF THE FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME IN EARLY INFANCY. The Lancet, 302(7836), 999-1001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(73)91092-1 KINSELLA, M., & MONK, C. (2009). Impact of Maternal Stress, Depression and Anxiety on Fetal Neurobehavioral Development. Clinical Obstetrics And Gynecology, 52(3), 425-440. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/grf.0b013e3181b52df1

Maestripieri, D. (2005). Early experience affects the intergenerational transmission of infant abuse in rhesus monkeys. Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences, 102(27), 9726-9729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0504122102 Monk, C., Spicer, J., & Champagne, F. (2012). Linking prenatal maternal adversity to developmental outcomes in infants: The role of epigenetic pathways. Development And Psychopathology, 24(04), 1361-1376. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579412000764 Moylan, C., Herrenkohl, T., Sousa, C., Tajima, E., Herrenkohl, R., & Russo, M. (2009). The Effects of Child Abuse and Exposure to Domestic Violence on Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior Problems. Journal Of Family Violence, 25(1), 53-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10896-009-9269-9 O'CONNOR, T. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years: Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. The British Journal Of Psychiatry, 180(6), 502508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.180.6.502 Schofield, G., & Beek, M. (2005). Providing a secure base: Parenting children in long-term foster family care. Attachment & Human Development, 7(1), 3-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616730500049019 Shonkoff, J., Garner, A., Siegel, B., Dobbins, M., Earls, M., & Garner, A. et al. (2011). The Lifelong Effects of Early Childhood Adversity and Toxic Stress. PEDIATRICS, 129(1), e232-e246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2663 Simms, M. (1991). Foster children and the foster care system, part II: Impact on the child. Current Problems In Pediatrics, 21(8), 345-369. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0045-9380(91)90046-n Springer, K., Sheridan, J., Kuo, D., & Carnes, M. (2003). The long-term health outcomes of childhood abuse. Journal Of General Internal Medicine, 18(10), 864-870. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2003.20918.x

Tietjen, G., & Peterlin, B. (2011). Childhood Abuse and Migraine: Epidemiology, Sex Differences, and Potential Mechanisms. Headache: The Journal Of Head And Face Pain, 51(6), 869-879. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4610.2011.01906.x Tucker, D., & MacKenzie, M. (2012). Attachment theory and change processes in foster care. Children And Youth Services Review, 34(11), 2208-2219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2012.07.020 Zuravin, S., & DePanfilis, D. (1997). Factors affecting foster care placement of children receiving child protective services. Social Work Research, 21(1), 34-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/swr/21.1.34...