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Kamal K.Kar Editor Composite Materials Processing, Applications, Characterizations MATERIALS.SPRINGER.COM Composite Materials Kamal K. Kar Editor Composite Materials Processing, Applications, Characterizations Editor Kamal K. Kar Advanced Nanoengineering Materials Laboratory Material Science Program...

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Kamal K.Kar Editor

Composite Materials Processing, Applications, Characterizations

MATERIALS.SPRINGER.COM

Composite Materials

Kamal K. Kar Editor

Composite Materials Processing, Applications, Characterizations

Editor Kamal K. Kar Advanced Nanoengineering Materials Laboratory Material Science Programme Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India Advanced Nanoengineering Materials Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

ISBN 978-3-662-49512-4 ISBN 978-3-662-49514-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-49514-8 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016950571 # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany

Dedicated to my wife, Sutapa, and my little daughter, Sristisudha, for their loving support and patience, and my mother, late Manjubala, and my father, Khagendranath

Preface

Composite materials have emerged as a major class of advanced elements and are either used or being considered as substitutions of metals/traditional materials in aerospace, automotive, civil, mechanical, and other industries. The outstanding features of composites are their high specific stiffness, high specific strength, and controlled anisotropy, which make them very attractive materials. A unique feature of composites is that the characteristics of the finished product can be tailored to a specific engineering requirement by a careful selection of matrix and filler. Due to these reasons, high performance advanced composites are widely used in several applications. As a result, a number of edited books have been published in the last decade outlining a variety of topics of current interest related to composite research. This is also an edited book for graduate students and researchers from various fields of science and technology, who wish to learn about the recent development of composites. In ▶ Chap. 1, focus is directed towards the processing and applications of fiber/ filler reinforced polymer based composite materials, as they constitute an important class of advanced materials and share a significant part of engineering material market. In the last few decades, several processes, i.e., hand lay-up, vacuum bag, pressure bag, filament winding, pultrusion, resin transfer molding, vacuum assisted resin transfer molding, compression molding, structural reaction injection molding, structural foam reaction injection molding, sandwich molding, etc., are developed by composite engineers around the globe. These processes with application of composites are discussed in this chapter. The characterization of a material is one of the essential/critical tasks for developing a product in the advanced applications. Chapter 2 addresses the major characterization techniques, i.e., volume fractions of constituents, voids in composites, surface roughness, tensile strength, flexural strength, interlaminar shear strength, impact strength, notch strength, fracture toughness, modulus, creep, stress relaxation, thermal properties, glass transition temperature, electrical properties, magnetic properties, piezoelectric properties, tribological properties, rheological properties, biological properties, etc. These characterization studies are also addressed in the adverse environments. Initially, the composite manufacturing processes developed for aerospace industries have been given too much emphasis on the quality, and as a result the vii

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production volume is less. In ▶ Chap. 3, a new manufacturing method, i.e., rubber pressure molding technique for long fiber/fabric reinforced polymer composites is discussed. A steel die and a rubber punch are used to produce the component in this process. This type of combination gives a nearly uniform hydrostatic pressure distribution over the surface of the composite part and hence produces a good quality product with uniform distribution of fibers and resin with lesser voids. As composite materials are markedly superior to the conventional materials, they are better and acceptable over the traditional metallic/ceramic/polymer. But the functionally graded materials are another class of composite materials, wherein the compositions of two or more components vary spatially or in a stepwise manner. This leads to innumerable advantages and a component can be used as a multifunctional product. It is also possible to achieve the contradictory properties within a component using the concept of functionally graded material. ▶ Chapter 4 defines the concept of functionally graded material, and various manufacturing techniques involved in making the graded composites. Electrodeposition is one of the most successful industrial processes for the deposition of mainly metallic coatings over the traditional products to improve the performance of material in the aggressive environment. The versatility of technique also allows the deposition of composites with special features at the micrometer and nanometer levels. Although the process is most suitable for the metal matrix composites, recent study reveals the potential in allowing the deposition of ceramic and polymer based composites as well. In ▶ Chap. 5, an overview of the fundamentals of electrodeposition and processing of composite materials are discussed. The polycarbonate, owing to its unique combination of properties such as high toughness and excellent compatibility with several polymers, proves to be a suitable matrix for structural applications. Whereas, carbon fiber, due to its superior tensile strength as high as 230 GPa and being lightweight, finds vast applications in aerospace, military, and civil industries. ▶ Chapter 6 discusses the preparation and detailed characterization of short carbon fiber reinforced polycarbonate composites. Ionic polymer metal composites are technologically matured electro-active polymers. These are frequently known as “soft actuators-sensors” or “artificial muscles” because of their electromechanical coupling behavior. The various factors, which determine the efficiency of such devices, are discussed in ▶ Chap. 7 along with the working principle of ionic polymer metal composites including fabrications and applications. Carbon based polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) are of recent research interest and cover numerous applications including structural, drug delivery, shape memory polymers, etc. In Chap. 8, different allotropes of carbon viz. carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphene oxide, fullerenes, metallofullerenes, carbon nanohorn, carbon nanodiamond, etc., are discussed in brief. Different types of nonconducting polymeric materials used for the fabrication of PNCs are also introduced. Several types of carbon-based PNCs and their fabrication methodologies have been emphasized to represent a broad overview on carbon based PNCs using nonconducting polymer matrices.

Preface

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Solid foams form an important class of lightweight cellular engineering materials that are used in engineering design mostly as core materials in the sandwich composite structures. These foams are formed by trapping of gas bubbles in a solid matrix thereby resulting in light-weight materials. The fundamentals, current state of research, and applications of thermosetting polymer based syntactic foams are critically addressed in ▶ Chap. 9. Carbon-carbon composites (C/Cs) became of interest in 1970s when the lightweight high temperature resistant material was required for the space vehicles. The two critical applications most often mentioned are re-entry vehicles and rocket nozzles. Other few commercial applications are the requirements for high performance lightweight brakes for aircraft and other high performance braking applications. Since there are not many materials that can withstand the temperatures up to 3000  C, carbon fiber-carbon matrix composite has become a material of interest. ▶ Chapter 10 summarizes various aspects of C/Cs in terms of matrix and reinforcement precursors, fabrication and effects of various processing parameters on their mechanical and thermal properties, and their applications. The metal matrix composites have various advantages over the traditional composites. But one of the most important disadvantages is that the metal matrices are poor in chemical and mechanical compatibility with the reinforcements. In ▶ Chap. 11, authors have discussed various reinforcing fiber, matrixes, processing, characterizations, and applications of metal matrix composites. Functionally graded materials (FGMs), due to their characteristic spatial gradient of structural/compositional features, exhibit unique properties that are not possessed by their constituent components. Applications of FGMs cover diverse areas including biomedicine, tissue engineering, structural composites for advanced applications, etc. ▶ Chapter 12 deals with a case study of synthesis and characterization of FGMs consisting of soft magnetic iron/nickel particles as filler in styrene butadiene rubber matrix. Copper-graphite composite is a typical electrical sliding contact material. Graphite has unique antifriction properties but also possess some disadvantages, i.e., low strength and current-carrying capacity. Addition of graphite particles to copper matrix reduces density, increases stiffness, raises the service temperature, and provides a mechanism for tailoring the coefficient of thermal expansion. ▶ Chapter 13 addresses the various types of copper-graphite composite, processing, performance of composites, and applications. Ceramic materials have excellent strength and thermal stability. However, the brittleness is a major barrier to these monolithic ceramics. Therefore, various particulates, i.e., whisker, fibers, or fabric materials with different forms and orientations are used to enhance the toughness of ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) at elevated temperature in several advanced applications. ▶ Chapter 14 focuses on the processing, properties, and applications of CMCs Although traditional ceramics are manufactured by ceramic industries (in terms of volume as well as the selling price), a variety of new ceramics has been immersing progressively with better properties and performances. ▶ Chapter 15 addresses zirconia and its nanocomposites, and their performances in thermal and chemical

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barrier coating, buffer layer for high temperature superconducting films, ball heads for hip replacements, automobiles, and series of optical and/or biological sensors. Superionic conductors, fast-ionic conductors or solid electrolytes are special class of materials, in which the ionic conductivity is very high and in some cases it can be comparable to that of molten salts and ionic solutions. ▶ Chapter 16 briefly discusses the conducting properties of fast ion conductors based on phosphate glass, which includes recent development in understanding of the nearly constant loss phenomenon, scaling behavior of AC conductivity, few models in the field of ion transport in glass electrolytes, etc. Carbon nanotube and graphene are allotrope of carbon having hexagonal arrangement of sp2-hybridized carbon. They exhibit excellent mechanical, thermal, and electronic properties. In ▶ Chap. 17, the authors focus on ceramic composites reinforced by carbon nanotubes and graphene. Bamboo is a potential natural fiber with its good stiffness, rigidity, easy availability, and hydrophobic nature. This hydrophobicity renders improper interfacial adhesion during polymer matrix based composite fabrication. This adhesion can be improved by suitable surface treatment of bamboo fiber, which is an important research topic to many scientists and is covered to some extent in ▶ Chap. 18. Naturally occurring superhydrophobic/superoleophobic surfaces have received tremendous attention owing to their unique multilevel surface structure. ▶ Chapter 19 reviews the basic physical understanding and the structure-property correlations of such liquid repelling surfaces. The chapter further explores the recent progress achieved towards the development of artificial liquid repellent surfaces by mimicking the natural ones. The editor and authors hope that readers from materials science, engineering, and technology will be benefited by reading of these high-quality review articles related to composite materials and their processing and applications. This book is not intended to be a collection of all research activities on composites worldwide, as it would be rather challenging to keep up with the pace of progress in this field. The editor would like to acknowledge many composite researchers, who have contributed to the contents of the book. The editor would also like to thank all the publishers and authors for giving permission to use their published images and original work. There were lean patches when I felt that 1 would not be able to take time out and complete the book, but my wife, Sutapa, and little daughter, Srishtisudha, played a crucial role to inspire me to complete it. I hope that this book will attract more researchers to this field, and that it will form a networking nucleus for the composite community. Please enjoy the book and communicate to the editor/authors any comments that you might have about its content. Advanced Nanoengineering Materials Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

Kamal K. Kar

Contents

1

Polymer-Based Composite Structures: Processing and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. D. Sharma, L. Sowntharya, and Kamal K. Kar

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Polymer-Based Composite Materials: Characterizations . . . . . . . . Jayesh Cherusseri, Sumit Pramanik, L. Sowntharya Deepak Pandey, Kamal K. Kar, and S. D. Sharma

3

Newly Developed Rubber Pressure Molding Technique for Fabrication of Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. D. Sharma and Kamal K. Kar

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Functionally Graded Composites: Processing and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sandeep S. Ahankari and Kamal K. Kar

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Nano-/Microcomposites by Electrodeposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. S. M. A. Haseeb

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Short Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polycarbonate Composites Raghunandan Sharma, Kamal K. Kar, Malay K. Das, Gaurav K. Gupta, and Sudhir Kumar

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Ionic Polymer Metal Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syed Nadeem Akhtar, Jayesh Cherusseri, J. Ramkumar, and Kamal K. Kar

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Nanocomposites Based on Carbon Nanomaterials and Electrically Nonconducting Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soma Banerjee, Raghunandan Sharma, and Kamal K. Kar

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Syntactic Foams for Multifunctional Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Sankaran, B. N. Ravishankar, K. Ravi Sekhar, Samudra Dasgupta, and M. N. Jagdish Kumar

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Contents

Advanced Carbon–Carbon Composites: Processing Properties and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raghunandan Sharma, N. L. Ravikumar, Kinshuk Dasgupta, J. K. Chakravartty, and Kamal K. Kar Metal Matrix Composites: Theory, Techniques, and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sumit Pramanik, Jayesh Cherusseri, Navajit Singh Baban, L. Sowntharya, and Kamal K. Kar

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Effect of Concentration Gradient on the Magnetic Properties of Functionally Graded Styrene Butadiene Rubber Composites . . . . Raghunandan Sharma, Sandeep S. Ahankari, and Kamal K. Kar

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Mechanical, Electrical, and Tribological Properties of Copper–Graphite Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. Rajkumar and S. Aravindan

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Current Advancements in Ceramic Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . Sumit Pramanik, Ayan Manna, Ashis Tripathy, and Kamal K. Kar

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Advanced ZrO2-Based Ceramic Nanocomposites for Optical and Other Engineering Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Ram and G. P. Singh

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xAgI-(1-x)MPO3 [M = Ag, Li) Superionic Composite Glasses and Their Current Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D. P. Singh, L. Sowntharya, K. Shahi, and Kamal K. Kar

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Carbon Nanotube-/Graphene-Reinforced Ceramic Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raghunandan Sharma and Kamal K. Kar

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Bamboo Fiber-Based Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mahuya Das

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Superhydrophobic and Superoleophobic Surfaces in Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oindrila Manna, Sarit K. Das, Raghunandan Sharma, and Kamal K. Kar

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About the Editor

Prof. Kamal K. Kar, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, is Umang Gupta Chair Professor from July 2014 to June 2017. He pursued higher studies from Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India, and Iowa State University, USA, before joining as a Lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials science at IIT Kanpur in 2001. He was a BOYSCAST Fellow in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA, in 2003 (May-December). He was a Head of Interdisciplinary Programme in Materials Science. Prof. Kar is an active researcher in the area of nanostructured carbon materials, nanocomposites, functionally graded materials, nanopolymers, and smart materials for st...