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Dissertation: To what extent is sex, gender and sexuality
discussed and/or represented within a collection of
the Cinderella stories?...

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Toni Ellison 1402000

To what extent is sex, gender and sexuality discussed and/or represented within a collection of the Cinderella stories? Presented as part of the award for B.A. (Hons) English

The University of Winchester April 2017

Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to pass on my greatest and deepest gratitude to Doctor Gary Farnell for his on-going support prior and throughout this project. His guidance has been invaluable throughout my time at university, and I hope that he will be able to assist in my future endeavours. I would also like to thank the whole collection of Professors who taught me through and before my final year, as many of the previous module topics have assisted in my exploration of this field, before my settling on a specific area of study. In particular, Doctor Chris Mounsey‘s module on Sexuality and Morality inspired me to look at LGBTQ+ issues in more depth. In addition, I would like to thank the small collection of friends and family that have supported me throughout my university career, those who have proof-read my work for me to ensure everything is perfect before submission and those who have stayed up to work the late nights with me. Finally, I wish to thank the examiners of this dissertation; thank you for your time and thoughts and I hope you enjoy my essay.

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Contents

Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................... Page 4 Chapter Two: Historical Variants .............................................................................. Page 9 Chapter Three: Old Variants.................................................................................... Page 16 Chapter Four: 20th Century Variants ....................................................................... Page 20 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... Page 25

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Chapter One: Introduction To what extent is sex, gender and sexuality discussed and/or represented within a collection of the Cinderella stories? In this essay, I will be discussing different variations of the tale and evaluating how it changes diachronically and demographically. I will then conclude with a discussion on why this topic matters with specific reference to the representation of differing views of sex, gender and sexuality; more precisely the representation of the LGBT+ community and why representation should be increased in forthcoming variations. Each tale will be analysed using the Seduction Theory, the Oedipus Complex and using gender representations to explore the nuances of the good versus evil binary in relation to the masculine versus the feminine, the representations of perverse sexuality or some of the lesser known genders. Whilst dealing with Freudian arguments around sexuality, it is imperative to remember that during Freud‘s analysis of sexuality, 'normal' sexuality was interchangeably referred to as "genital instinct", i.e., heterosexual sexuality.1 And thus, anything else is classed as perverse sexuality. Halperin states that; Sex has no history. It is a natural fact, grounded in the functioning of the body, and, as such, it lies outside of history and culture. Sexuality, by contrast, does not properly refer to some aspect or attribute of bodies. Unlike sex, sexuality is a cultural production: it represents the appropriation of the human body and of its physiological capacities by an ideological discourse. Sexuality is not a somatic fact; it is a cultural effect. Sexuality, then, does have a history – though […] not a very long one.2 Included in this short history of sexuality are the theories of sexuality, such as the Seduction Theory, which featured (unnamed at the time) in Freud's Three Essays on Sexuality and the theory of the Oedipus Complex, a theory still often discussed today, explaining how perverse sexuality may occur.3

1

Arnold I. Davidson, "How to Do the History of Psychoanalysis: A Reading of Freud's Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality", The Trial(s) of Psychoanalysis , ed. Francoise Meltzer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 39-64, p. 47. 2 David M. Halperin, "Is There a History of Sexuality?" in History and Theory, (1989), vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 257-274, p, 257. 3 Sigmund Freud and James Strachey, Three essays on the theory of sexuality, 1st ed. (Connecticut: Martino Publishing, 2011).

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Seduction Theory, when originally theorised by Freud in 1896, stated that ―hysterical patients suffer from long-term effects of sexual assaults during childhood‖, more specifically ―by traumatic stimulation of the genitals during infancy of earliest childhood‖. 4 5This belief was that hysteria was caused by repressed childhood sexual trauma, normally instigated by a father-figure; the majority of my patients reproduced from their childhood scenes in which they were sexually seduced by some grown-up person. With female patients the part of the seducer was almost always assigned to the father.6 This theory assumes ―heterogenital sexuality as innate, and perverse sexuality as acquired‖; therefore if a person seduces, or rather, violates, a person of the same sex or of the same family, or exhibits perverse sexual behaviour (perverse according to the context of the time), it is a behaviour they have learned from another.7 It is this element of the Seduction Theory that I will be using to analyse the variations of Cinderella, due to the fact that most of the characters are assumed to be the age of a young adult. As a result of this assumed age, the characters must be past the age of earliest childhood therefore repressed explicit or implicit sexual trauma, or traumatic stimulation of the genitals, is not, or will not, be mentioned in the tales themselves. The Oedipus Complex was also developed by Freud, following the collapse of his earlier Seduction Theory concept. It roughly follows a Greek story by the same name, where a man kills his father and has sexual intercourse with his mother. Freud explained the theory as a ―desire for sexual involvement with the parent of the opposite sex, which produces a sense of competition with the parent of the same sex‖.8 9 In more detail, the theory explains that around the age of 5 or 6, the various elements of sexuality begin to converge and the primary aim is to achieve ―genital 4

Hans Isreaels and Morton Schatzman, ―The Seduction Theory‖ in History of Psychiatry (1993), Vol 4, 13, 23-59, p. 23. 5 Hall Triplett, ―The Misnomer of Freud‘s ―Seduction Theory‖ in Journal of the History of Ideas (1993) Vol 65, 4, 647-665. P. 600. 6 Sigmund Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. Vol XIV, XX, III. London. 1953-66. p33-34. 7 Lawrence Birken, ―From Seduction Theory to Oedipus Complex: A Historical Analysis‖ , in New German Critique (1988), 43, 83-96. p88-89. 8 Sofe Ahmed, ―Sigmund Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory Oedipus complex: A crucial study with reference to D.H. Lawrence‘s ―Sons and Lovers‖‖, in Internal Journal of English and Literature (2012), Vol 3, 3, 60-70. p.64. 9 rd Sigmund Freud, Interpretation of Dream, 3 ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1913).

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intercourse with the parent of the opposite sex‖.10 Freud believed that the Oedipus Complex concluded with the threat of castration anxiety; in order to sleep with the mother, the boy must first castrate the father, before he can be punished in similar fashion. This fear of castration keeps the boy from his oedipal ambitions, and he then transfers his sexual attraction from the mother, to other females. On the other hand, girls blame the mother for their ‗castration‘, and in reaction turn to their fathers; as figures of love and sex (due to their ambition of being their father‘s only interest). Girls are able to overcome the Oedipus Complex by turning the wish for a penis, into the wish for a baby.11 However, an inability to overcome the complex in early life results in neurosis. When discussing gender representations, it is important to first differentiate between sex and gender. Sex is referred to as ―either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and many other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions‖.12 Whereas gender is referred to as ―the state of being male or female as expressed by social or cultural distinctions and differences, rather than biological ones; the collective attributes or traits associated with a particular sex, or determined as a result of one‘s sex‖, although gender and sex do not always have to match.13 I will use the term gender to emphasise the point that ―dissimilarities between the sexes are socially, culturally, and politically constructed, and are therefore subject to change‖.14 Discussion around gender and its representations grew out of the field of feminism, as an attempt to understand the concepts which shape femininity, and by association, masculinity and what it means to be a woman.15 For this reason, the majority of gender studies orientates itself around the topic of women and their femininity or masculinity, as opposed to men and their gender. 10

Stephen Mitchel and Margaret Black, A History of Modern Psychoanalytic Thought, (New York: Basic Books, 1995). 11 Sanja Jakovljev and Matacie Stanislav, ―The Oedipus Complex in Contemporary Psychoanalysis‖ Coll. Antropol, 29 (2005), 351-369, p.2. 12 Oed.com, Sex, n.1. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2008). Found at: http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/176989?rskey=NvveNU&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid [Accessed th on: 18 January 2017]. 13 Oed.com, Gender, n. (Oxford English Dictionary, 2011). Found at: http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/77468?rskey=yRJqoI&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid [Accessed on: th 18 Janurary 2017]. 14 Robert B. Shoemaker, Gender in the English Society 1650-1850: The Emergence of Separate Spheres? (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 1. 15 Robert B. Shoemaker, Gender in the English Society 1650-1850: The Emergence of Separate Spheres? (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 2.

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I will be using the terms masculine and feminine as two spheres of gender, where some of the attributes may, or may not, overlap, depending on the contextual information. However, according to Shoemaker, masculinity is most frequently depicted as unchanging.16 This is an issue, as it assumes the constant male dominance and oppression throughout history. In reality, women grew more restricted around the seventeenth century as the emergence of separate spheres became more commonplace in English society. This emergence resulted in a distinctive identity and lifestyle for middle class women, who were being increasingly excluded from public life, with a focus growing on domesticity as a moral duty.17 The focus on domesticity then spread from middle class women, across women of different class systems. Yates analysed the representation of gender on vases in Eastern Europe and the Near East, and noted that the figures appear to accumulate male identity.18 The vases in question were from a prehistoric time period, demonstrating that the more recent differentiation between sex and gender is not a new idea, but rather a return to the former.19 This is something to be explored in more detail when analysing the representations of gender in the older variations of Cinderella in Chapter Two: Pre1000s. Cinderella is a very popular fairy tale, and a highly influential story. In modern times, this fairy tale is an in-demand plot line, especially for films and other forms of creative distribution. However, the story itself is not a new one; the plot can be traced back through history and across the world. Many different cultures have their own variations of the Cinderella story; the Chinese ―Yeh-hsien‖, the Himalayan ―Story of the Black Cow‖, the Arabian ―Princess in the Suit of Leather‖, the French ―Donkeyskin‖ and the list goes on.20 Each of these tales has their own context, their own origin story and, most importantly, each one represents a differing view of sex, gender and sexuality in correspondence with their country of origin and the time

16

Robert B. Shoemaker, Gender in the English Society 1650-1850: The Emergence of Separate Spheres? (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2013), p. 1-2. 17 Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2013). 18 Barbara Bender, ―Introduction‖ in Representations of Gender from Prehistory to the Present, ed. By Moira Donald and Linda Hurcombe (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press LTD, 2000), xix-xxix, p. xx. 19 Naomi Hamilton, ―Ungendering Archaeology: Concepts of Sex and Gender in Figurine Studies in Prehistory‖ in Representations of Gender from Prehistory to the Present, ed. By Moira Donald and Linda Hurcombe (Basingstoke: Macmillan Press LTD, 2000), 17-30, p. 17. 20 Maria Tatar, The Classic Fairy Tales (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc, 1999), p. 101-137.

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period from which it came from. Within the following chapters I shall explore each variants representation of sex, gender and sexuality in relation to gender representations, the Seduction Theory and the Oedipus Complex.

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Chapter Two: Historical Versions of Cinderella In this chapter I aim to discuss several older variations of Cinderella and how they represent sex, gender and sexuality. These variants are the furthest away from the modern ones in terms of age, and are interesting to discuss in terms of the differences and similarities. Unlike the newer versions, they do not include fairy godmothers, glass shoe wear, or necessarily happy endings. The first tale I wish to discuss, is that of Rhodopis. This is the earliest known variation of the Cinderella Story; it was first recorded in the first century BC by a Greek Historian named Strabo, although it is set in ancient Egypt.21 22 As noted by Strabo, Rhodopis is a slave originally from Greece but sold to a man in Egypt, where the other slaves tease her for being different. When she is seen dancing by her owner, he buys her a pair of beautiful shoes, believing that no one should have to dance without shoes. One day, the King held court nearby and invited the entire kingdom, including Rhodopis. However, the rest of the slaves decreed that she could only go once she had completed all of her chores. She is at the river washing clothes, when her shoe gets wet. She takes them off to dry, at which point one of the pair is taken by eagle to the King at court. Upon seeing the rose-gold shoe, he decrees that every woman should try the shoe for fitting, and he will marry the shoe‘s owner.23 24 When he is travelling the lands searching for the shoe's owner, he comes across Rhodopis and asks her to try on the shoe, and which point she slips her "tiny foot" into the slipper and pulls the other from her pocket. The tale concludes with the rest of the slaves arguing against the King's proposal to Rhodopis, explaining that not only is she a slave, she is also lacking of the Eygptian heritage to make a credible Egyptian Queen; the King then explains "She is the most Egyptian of all...for her eyes are as green as the Nile, her hair as feathery as papyrus, and her skin the pink of a lotus flower."25 The sexuality exhibited by the King would be deemed as liberal in modern day society, in fact, he could be considered to be more sexually liberated than many of 21

Olive Miller Beaupré, Through Fairy Halls of My Bookhouse. (Chicago: The Bookhouse for Children Publisher, 1920.) 22 Shirley Climo, and Ruth Heller. The Egyptian Cinderella. (Crowell, 1989). 23 W.R.S. Ralston, ―Cinderella‖ in Cinderella, a Casebook , ed. By Alan Dundes (London: Routledge, 1988), 30-56, p. 38. 24 Photeince P. Bourboulis, ―The Bride-Show Custom and the Fairy-Story of Cinderella‖ in Cinderella, a Casebook, ed. By Alan Dundes (London: Routledge, 1988), 98-109, p.100. 25 Shirley Climo, and Ruth Heller. The Egyptian Cinderella. (Crowell, 1989).

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the public today. This is due to his announcement of marriage to a woman he has never met before; unlike in many arranged marriages, there was no medium between the two parties. In Athens, "sex did not express inward dispositions or inclinations so much as it served to position social actors in the place assigned to them".26 This use of sex to assert power over inferiors was thematised as domination; Halperin states that: an adult, male citizen of Athens could then have legitimate sexual relations only with statutory minors (his inferiors not in age but in social and political status); the proper targets of his sexual desire included, specifically, women of any age, free males past the age of puberty who were not yet old enough to be citizens […], as well as foreigners and slaves of either sex.27 This demonstrates that sexuality in Greece was highly liberal; as sexual relations could be independent from marriage. In such a liberal society, the definition of perverse sexuality is harder to define, however, using the above quotation as a definition of ‗normal‘ sexuality at this time, one can assume that perverse sexuality is that where a person‘s sexual desires are targeting at a person of higher social standing. The King demonstrates this understanding of ‗normal‘ sexuality, due to his desire to find the shoe‘s owner in his own land; he does not search neighbouring kingdoms for royalty to fit the shoe. This desire to find the maiden in his own land demonstrates that he must aim his sexual desires towards someone of a lower social standing than himself. On the other hand, the King‘s declaration of marriage for the shoe‘s owner could be portraying an authoritarian viewpoint: a King similar to the one in Arabian Nights - a King who marries a woman on a whim, only to divorce or kill her immediately after consummation.28 This idea assumes that he will be happy in a marriage where the two parties do not know each the other, so the focus is less on love, sex and sensual emotions than it is about politics, money and beauty. In

26

David M. Halperin, "Is There a History of Sexuality?" in History and Theory, (1989), vol. 28, 3, pp. 257-274, p, 258. 27 David M. Halperin, "Is There a History of Sexuality?" in History and Theory, (1989), vol. 28, 3, pp. 257-274, p, 260-261. 28 Dominic Cooke, Arabian Nights (London: Nick Hern Books, 1999).

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addition, this reinforces the idea of women as an object or a second-rate citizens; used only for others‘ desires (most likely sexual). Although Rhodopis is set in Egypt, it is possible to use the Greek understanding of sexuality and apply it to Egypt, due to Rhodopis‘ heritage and the similarities of the two cultures. Robins points out that due to the lack of understanding about Egyptian society, it is hard to examine the ―place and importance of women in a system we do not fully comprehend‖.29 What is understood however, is the major role that the women played in the household duties.30 It is important to note here that although some of the characters in the story are Egyptian, and can therefore be studied using Egyptian ideas of sex, gender and sexuality, both the protagonist and the author of the story are Greek. As aforementioned, the characters comply with the Greek understanding of sexuality. Although modern society does not reinforce the importance of have personal relations with those superior to one‘s self, this story can be transferred quite easily into modern culture. Due to the ...