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Journal of Sports Sciences, August 2008; 26(10): 1033–1047

Functional impact of emotions on athletic performance: Comparing the IZOF model and the directional perception approach 1

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CLAUDIO ROBAZZA , MELINDA PELLIZZARI , MAURIZIO BERTOLLO , & YURI L. HANIN4 1

Dipartimento di Scienze del Movimento Umano, Facolta` di Scienze dell’Educazione Motoria, Universita` di Chieti, Italy, Dipartimento di Scienze Cliniche e Bioimmagini, Universita` di Chieti, Italy, 3Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche di Base ed Applicate, Istituto Interuniversitario di Miologia, Facolta` di Scienze dell’Educazione Motoria, Universita` di Chieti, Italy and 4 KIHU-Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Jyva¨ skyla¨ , Finland 2

(Accepted 3 March 2008)

Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the impact of emotions on athletic performance within the frameworks of the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model and the directional perception approach. Intensity, functional impact, and hedonic tone of trait and state anxiety, self-confidence, idiosyncratic emotions, and bodily symptoms were assessed in highlevel Italian swimmers and track and field athletes (N ¼ 56). Three standards of performance (poor, average, and good), derived from retrospective self-ratings across one to three competitions (a total of 90 observations), were used as independent variables in the analysis of variance of intensity, intra-individual, and direction scores of anxiety, selfconfidence, idiosyncratic emotions, and bodily symptoms. Subsequently, intra-individual scores were categorized as near to or distant from optimal/dysfunctional zones and entered as the independent variable in the analysis of direction scores. The results provided support for the predictions stemming from both the IZOF model and the directional approach, as well as help in interpreting direction of anxiety and other idiosyncratic emotions within the IZOF framework. Athletes tended to perceive emotional levels approximating an individual’s optimal zone as facilitative–pleasant, and emotional levels approximating an individual’s dysfunctional zone as debilitative–unpleasant.

Keywords: Functional emotions, dysfunctional emotions, hedonic tone, athletic performance

Introduction Study of the relationship between emotional arousal and performance has been of central importance in sport psychology (see Gould, Greenleaf, & Krane, 2002). Emotion is commonly defined as a prompt reaction to an actual or imagined stimulus event, which involves a subjective experience (cognitive component), physiological response (arousal or activation), and action tendencies (Deci, 1980). Subjective experience relates to the individual’s appraisal of the significance of a particular emotional situation in terms of personal harms and benefits (Lazarus, 2000). Physiological responses entail changes in heart rate, blood pressure, visceral functioning, and other autonomic nervous system reactions. These physiological changes of arousal or activation may energize approach and avoidance (or withdrawal) behaviours. Both arousal and activation

involve cognitive and physiological activity on the part of the organism. Hardy and colleagues (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996), drawing on the work of Pribram and McGuiness (1975), proposed a differentiated view of the two constructs. Arousal refers to the organism’s immediate response to new stimuli or input. Activation is a complex multidimensional state that reflects the organism’s anticipatory readiness to perform, and can be altered by changes in arousal. The physical energy that accompanies emotions acts to enhance the athlete’s performance when properly channelled. However, detrimental effects are likely when the energy is out of control (cf. Jones, 2003). Early research on the topic employed different theoretical frameworks borrowed mainly from general psychology. These included the inverted-U hypothesis (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908), state–trait anxiety theory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene,

Correspondence: C. Robazza, Dipartimento di Scienze del Movimento Umano, Facolta` di Scienze dell’Educazione Motoria, Universita` di Chieti, Viale Abruzzo 322, 66013 Chieti, Italy. E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2008 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/02640410802027352...