Exam 1 brain and behavior study guide PDF

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Introduction 1. Compare and contrast pure research (aka basic research), applied research, and translational research. Pure (Basic) Research: Conducted for the purpose of acquiring knowledge and Knowledge can generally be applied to basic research programs Applied Research: Intended to bring about direct benefit to humankind Translational research: direct steps taken in practical application (human drug trials, for example) ● Many research projects have elements of both. ● Applied research is any research that may possibly be useful for enhancing health or well-being. It does not necessarily have to have any effort connected with it to take the research to a practical level. ● For example, an applied research study might analyze longitudinal data that tracks participants’ health and social relationships. The researchers would report their findings in an academic journal. But in translational research, the same study would include some “action steps.” The researchers would partner with a community and ask for ideas about how their findings might apply there. Together, they would come up with an intervention plan that would also include scientific evaluation of its effectiveness.

2. Compare and contrast experiments and correlational studies. Correlational studies are when 2 variables are measured, and we use statistics to see if they are in any way related (ie, if they vary together, or covary ) . ● Correlational studies help identify variables that may be related to each other. Experiments involve the manipulation of variables. 3. Define and provide examples of neuroplasticity. a. Neuroplasticity- The ability of the brain to change b. Examples: Classical Pavlov conditioning, practice in a sport and getting better 4. Describe examples of the mind-brain connection States of consciousness (sleep and wakefulness, attention, coma, etc) Stimulate brain activity— evoke experiences or behavior tendencies i. Drugs of abuse stimulate certain brain regions— reinforce behavior b. Brain damage →   mind damage c. Brain stimulation →   mind &/or behavioral stimulation The relationship between the mind and the brain 5. Describe the concepts of converging operations and preponderance of the evidence. Why are these particularly important in understanding human behavioral neuroscience? Converging operations: a. Using multiple experimental and quasiexperimental approaches: i. Experiments in animal models or even cell lines ii. Correlational and epidemiological studies in humans

Preponderance of the evidence: b. A legal term referring to all evidence (data) pointing in the same direction i. Experiments in animal models and cell cultures, and epidemiological and correlational studies in humans all suggest the SAME cause of a particular phenomenon Example with Smoking leading to lung cancer: – Converging operations: Multiple approaches; strengths of some compensate for weakness of others; epidemiological study in humans (precludes experimentation), Exposure and toxicity studies in animal models – Preponderance of the evidence: The  majority of the evidence points to a single answer – Smoking cigarettes correlated with lung cancer – Longer someone smokes →   more likely to get lung cancer – Exposure to smoke in non-smokers →   increased risk of lung cancer 6. What is somatic intervention? What is behavior intervention? For each, what is the IV and what is the DV? • Somatic interventions (independent variable) Behaviors affected (Dependent variable) Administering a hormone

  →

Strength of mating behavior

Behavioral intervention (Independent variable) →   Somatic effects (Dependent variable) Put male in presence of female

Changes in hormone levels

1. Define and discuss the field of biopsychology. ● Biopsychology: the scientific study of behavior ● Hebb proposed that psychological phenomena (perceptions, thoughts, memories) might be produced by brain activity ● Hebb’s work helped discredit the notion that psychological functions were too complex to be derived from physiological activities ● Biopsychology utilizes the knowledge and tools of other disciplines of neuroscience 2. Describe six areas of neuroscience that are particularly relevant to biopsychology. ● Neuroanatomy: structure of the nervous system ● Neurophysiology: functions and activities of the nervous system (what’s going to make the activity happen) ● Neurochemistry: chemical  bases of neural activity ● Neuropathology: nervous system disorders ● Neuropharmacology/Psychopharmacology: effects of drugs on neural activity ● Neuroendocrinology: interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system (connection between brain & hormones) ● Each discipline studies a different aspect of the nervous system that informs our understanding of what produces and controls behavior

3. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of humans and nonhumans as subjects in biopsychological research. ● Species differences are often more quantitative than qualitative i. Follow instructions ii. Make subjective reports iii. Often cheaper to work with ● Humans i. Communicate ii. Can generalize ● Nonhumans i. Simpler brain ii. Comparative approach iii. Ethical reasons iv. Don’t know what’s going on Cells of the Nervous System 1. Compare and contrast multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons ● Neurons: basic unit of the nervous system 1. Specialized cells for the reception, conduction, and transmission of electrochemical signals 2. Many sizes and shapes ● Most are multipolar— many dendrites and almost always an axon (motor system) ● Biopolar: 2 process off of soma— soma just keeps neuron alive (sensory system) ● Unipolar: 1 process off of soma (sensory system)

2. Identify the parts of a synapse ● Synapse: where 2 cells meet (point of communication at the gap between 2 neurons) ● Presynaptic cell: neuron on the releasing end of a synapse ● Postsynaptic cell: neuron on the receiving end of a synapse ● Synaptic cleft: space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

3. Briefly describe 6 kinds of glial cells and their functions in the nervous system ● Peripheral Nervous System 1. Satellite cells ● Surround cells bodies of neurons ● Assists in various functions for the cell body ● Role is similar to astrocytes— structural function, regulation of extracellular fluid, supply of nutrients to neurons 2. Schwann cells ● Myelinate axons in the PNS ● 1 Schwann cells= 1 segment of myelin around axon and then just chills there forever ● When a PNS nerve is cut, the axons regrow through the Schwann cell tube ● Central Nervous System 1. Ependymal cells ● In the walls of ventricles; help make cerebrospinal fluid (produce constantly 1 ½ L per day) 2. Oligodendrocytes ● Myelinate axons in the CNS ● Tree w/ many branches; each forms a segment of myelin ● MS: autoimmune disease that attacks oligodendrocytes so it demyelinates axons of CNS; sometimes mimic brain tumors b/c of the associated edema and inflammation 3. Astrocytes ● Wrap up around terminals of related axons ● Remove waste material ● Provide structural support (well-developed cytoskeleton) ● Form dense scars upon injury— hard time forming axons in dense scars ● Ex: radial glial cells: type seen in development; in adulthood there are 2 types, one in white mater (Fibrous) and one in gray matter (Protoplasmic) ● Connections w/ blood vessels: 1. Dilate blood vessels in active regions of the brain 2. Provide nutrients from blood to neurons 3. Help form blood-brain-barrier 4. Microglia ● Search for and respond to injury or disease ● Multiply ● Engulf cellular debris ● Trigger inflammatory response ● Provide immune like function in the brain ● Small ● In healthy NS, they use their process to look for damage or disease; when microglia detect neuronal damage, they proliferate,

go to site of injury and turn into macrophages and devour pathogens and neuronal debris ● Function unknown in healthy brain 4. Describe the structure and the function of the blood brain barrier ● The brain is highly vascularized ● Neural tissue has to be protected from components in blood ● BBB is a barrier around the blood vessels in the brain ● Both within and around the blood vessels in the brain ● It’s literally all around the blood vessels ● The endothelium (endothelial cells) is a thin layer of cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels 1. Cells of capillary walls (endothelial cells) form tight junctions (very hard for things to pass through, but not enough so we have astrocytes) 2. Astrocytes (making the additional layer) surround endothelia cells ● Normally, an infected cell is itself killed by the immune system. We can’t lose neurons this way because they won’t be replaced. So need to work hard to keep bad stuff out of the brain ● Made by endothelia cells that form walls of capillaries (tight junctions) ● L-Dopa, dopamine ● Keeps out most viruses, bacteria and chemicals (harmfully and potentially helpful chemicals like L DOPA) ● What can go through? 1. Small uncharged molecules (O2, CO2) and H2O through a special channel 2. Molecules that dissolve in fats of capillary walls (psychiatric drugs like antidepressants and drugs of abuse and vitamins) 3. Glucose (brain uses LOTS of glucose, which requires O2, so brain uses lots of O2. If no thiamine (Vit B1), can’t use glucose, neurons die – Korsokoff’s syndrome 4. Heroin passes through more readily than morphine ● Sometimes viruses do enter 1. Brain can slow reproduction, but never lose virus 2. Herpes in through cell of spinal cord— chickenpox, shingles, genital herpes ● On the same note, there are areas without a BBB (incomplete on purpose). These are called circumventricular organs. One is in the area postrema which is responsible for vomiting 1. To sample periphery— enact compensatory changes to homeostatic challenges ● Barrier also keeps out useful nutrition ● Active transport to get nutrients into brain 1. Uses energy 2. Amino acids (building blocks of proteins) 3. Vitamins 4. Hormones 5. How are neurons similar to other cells in the body? How are they different?

● Neurons: basic unit of the nervous system ● Group of neurons is called a nucleus ● Similar to other cells in the body: 1. Basic makeup is like any other cell 2. Organelles, including plasma membrane— nucleus, mitochondria; all organelles other cells have, neurons ● Different from other cells in the body 1. Morphology 2. Communication with each other neurons, often over very long distances 3. Postmitotic: no longer dividing after development of mature neurons; “you’ve got what you got” 6. Describe the structure of the cell membrane. ● A phospholipid bilayer with signaling proteins and channel proteins embedded in it ● A structure consisting principally of lipid molecules that defines the outer boundaries of a cell and also constitutes many of the cell organelles, such as the Golgi apparatus ● Like the wall of the neuron ● Semipermeable: some things permeate, while others don’t ● Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide more freely ● Na+, Ca2+, K+, Cl- move through ion channels (protein channels)— have channels to move in and out at certain times 1. Protein channels: control the passage in and out of neurons in cell membrane ● Most chemicals cannot cross cell membrane 7. Know the parts of a neuron and their functions. Be able to label the parts of a neuron. ● Neurons have the same organelles as other cells in the body ● Nucleus: a structure in the central region of a cell, containing the nucleolus and chromosomes ● Nucleolus: a structure within the nucleus of a cell that produces the ribosomes

● Sensory neurons: unipolar and bipolar ● Directly sensitive or connected to receptor cells ● The soma lives just outside of the spinal cord (in a dorsal root ganglion). Most of its length is an axon. It has specialized endings in the skin, and its terminals are in the spinal cord ● Motor neurons; multipolar ● End in muscles, glands, or neurons in PNS ganglia ● The cell body (soma) lives in the spinal cord. The axon is part of a nerve in your body. The terminals synapse with muscle fibers 8. 5. Know the terms nucleus (not the organelle), ganglion, nerve and tract. ● Nucleus: a group of neurons (somas) with a common location, common connections, and common function 1. A group of neurons in the CNA ● Ganglion: a group of neurons in the PNS ● Nerve: bundle  of axons in the PNS ● Tract: bundle  of axons in the CNS 9. Draw and label a synapse (presynaptic cell (terminal), postsynaptic cell (dendrite or dendritic spine), synaptic cleft).

10. 10. What were the contributions of Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramon y Cajal to our understanding of neurons? ● Santiago Ramon y Cajal mapped the entire brain; postulated the idea of individual cells; used the staining process and theorized that they were their own individual cells communicated with each other: The Neuron Doctrine ● Camilo Golgi: reticulum system: all connected; Golgi stain 10. Know the different types of glial cells and their functions. ESPECIALLY which one puts myelin on axons in the CNS and which one myelinates axons of the PNS? Also understand what astrocytes do. ● See above learning objective ● CNS 1. Ependymal cells: in the walls of the ventricles; help make cerebrospinal fluid 2. Oligodendrocytes: myelinate axons in the CNS 3. Astrocytes: ● structural support (well-developed cytoskeleton) ● helps form blood brain barrier ● form dense scars upon injury ● transfer of nutrients (glucose) to and from neurons & regulation of extracellular ionic concentrations (lots of K+ channels) 4. Microglia: search for and respond to injury or disease ● PNS 1. Satellite cells: surround cell bodies of neurons 2. Schwann cells: myelinate axons in the PNS 11. What/where is the blood brain barrier? What does it keep out, let in? What are the implications of this for drug use and medicine? ● Endothelial cells w/ tight junctions surrounding capillaries ● Astrocytes surround endothelia cells ● BBB keeps out 1. Virus and bacteria 2. Chemicals 3. Nutrients ● BBB let in 1. Small uncharged molecules 2. Fat-soluble molecules (vit A and D, psychotropic drugs) 3. Glucose (special transport)

● Implicates of this for drug use and medicine 1. Must be able to pass the BBB 12. What do Golgi staining and Electron Microscopy (EM) allow scientists to visualize (to help answer this, see slides 28-32)? Golgi stain ● Allows for visualization of individual neurons ● The heavy metal stain penetrates and fills a subpopulation of neurons (randomly) and allows the visualization of the morphology (shape) of these neurons ● Shows us what the entire cell looks like so we have an idea of what type of cell is there Electron microscopy ● Provides information about the details of neuronal structure ● very high magnification; provides information about the details of neuronal structure ● Allows us to see the very fine structure of neurons and the surrounding tissue ● Scanning electron microscopy: gives us a 3D impression of the types of things (very small) you could see with regular EM. Gross Anatomy of the Brain

1. Describe the similarities and differences between human brain and brains of other species. ● Same: i. Brain areas ii. Chemicals (neurotransmitters) iii. Proteins (channels & receptors) ● Different: i. Overall brain size ii. Size of individual parts 1. Neocortex (primates) 2. Olfactory bulb (rodents) 3. Auditory cortex (bats) 4. Muscle and sense organs of forelimbs (monkeys) 2. What are the 3 primary divisions of the brain and what major structures are in those division? ● Forebrain i. Cortex ii. Corpus callosum iii. Thalamus

iv. Hypothalamus v. Pineal gland vi. Pituitary gland vii. Basal ganglia viii. Limbic system ● Midbrain i. Cerebral peduncle ii. Corpora quadrigemina iii. Cerebral aqueduct ● Hindbrain i. Cerebellum ii. Pons iii. Medulla 3. What 3 structures comprise the brainstem? ● Medulla ● Pons ● Midbrain 4. For the following brain structures, be able to identify them on a midline section of the brain, and know the major functions they are involved in: medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, corpus callosum ● Look at brain label paper ● Medulla i. Controls vital reflexes: breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, and sneezing ii. Control via cranial nerves: sensory and motor control of head and parasympathetic output to organs (vagus nerve) iii. Damage to medulla can be fatal iv. Large doses of opiates can be fatal b/c suppress activity of medulla ● Pons i. Serves as a message station between several areas of the brain. It helps relay messages from the cortex and the cerebellum ● Cerebellum i. Movement 1. Rate, range, force, and direction ii. Well-learned movements iii. Balance & postural control iv. Sensory timing ● Midbrain i. Reflexive orienting to visual and auditory stimuli ii. Intrinsic/ descending pain control iii. Sources of dopamine ( Substantia nigra— Parkinson’s disease) ● Thalamus i. Relay station/filter for sensory info on its way to cortex 1. Info transferred unchanged, not the case, info is integrated

ii. Involved in many other systems (motor, emotional memory, etc.) iii. Also gets input from cortex: reciprocal connections ● Hypothalamus i. Involved in drive-related behaviors and maintenance of homeostasis 1. Feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behavior, fighting, arousal (activity level), sleep/wake rhythms ii. Communicates with pituitary gland to alter hormone release iii. Hypo= below the thalamus iv. Connects to forebrain and midbrain v. Distinct nuclei ● Pituitary gland i. Endocrine gland (hormone producing) ii. Attached to/ controlled by hypothalamus iii. Makes and releases hormones into bloodstream iv. Attached to base of hypothalamus by stalk ● Pineal gland i. Makes and secretes melatonin ii. Daily and seasonal rhythms iii. Unpaired structure on midline iv. Seat of the soul and connection between mind and body ● Corpus Callosum i. Largest hemisphere- connecting tract ii. The large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them 5. Cranial nerves: what is their general function (I’ll give you this one: sensory and motor for face and head…know what that means?). How many are there? ● 12 pairs of cranial nerves ● Sensory and motor for head and face ● Information comes in the cranial nerves and eventually ends up in sensory cortex 6. We discussed 2 systems: the limbic system and the basal ganglia. Know the general function(s) of each. What are the 2 major structures of the limbic system? ● Limbic system i. Hippocampus 1. If you saw a hippo on campus, you would remember it 2. Forming long-term memories(facts and events) ii. Amygdala 1. Emotion ● Basal ganglia i. Facilitation of movement ii. Also cognition and emotion (to a lesser extent) iii. Group of interconnected structures, mostly in forebrain; one is in midbrain (brain stem)— they communicate to discuss the facilitation of movement

iv. Cortex talks to basal ganglia 7. On a lateral view of the brain, be able to locate the lobes of the cortex and give functions associated with each. Included in this, be sure that you can locate motor cortex, somatosensory cortex, auditory cortex, visual cortex, prefrontal cortex. Also lateral fissure and central sulcus ● Cortex i. 4 lobes 1. Frontal a. Primary motor cortex i. Voluntary movement ii. Controls opposite side of body iii. Cerebellum and basal ganglia influence movement by talking to motor cortex b. Broca’s area i. Left hemisphere only ii. Language production c. Prefrontal cortex: executive functions i. Planning ii. Working memory iii. Cognitive flexibility iv. Socially appropriate behavior v. Foresight vi. Insight vii. Impulse control 2. Parietal a. Spatial organization b. Visual association cortex c. Primary somatosensory cortex i. First cortex to process touch, temperature, & pain info ii. From opposite side of body iii. Proprioception too 3. Temporal a. Primary auditory cortex b. Wernike’s area i. Language comprehension ii. Left side only c. Visual association cortex i. Object recognition, including faces 4. Occipital a. Vision b. Primary visual cortex ii. Functional specificity

iii. Hemispher...