Exam 1 Review 2302 - Adam Fetterman PDF

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Exam 1 Review

09/20/2017

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Chapter 1

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What is social psychology?: The scientific study of the way in which

people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people.  Social Influence: The effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior. Interesting for scientists because it is seen as empirical science.  Construal: The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world. For social psychologists, the relationship between the social environment and the individual is a two-way street. (Situations will influence behavior but behavior also depends on interpretation. Also influenced by the type of person dealt with)  How is social Psychology different than other fields:  Philosophy: source of insight (who is right?)  Personality or Individual differences: personality psychologists focus

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on how different people react in different situations but feel like this approach is missing the role of the situation  Sociology: Study of societies as a whole with some overlap Why are hindsight bias and the fundamental attribution error harmful

to the field?:  Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people’s behavior is due to internal,

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dispositional factors and to underestimate the role of situational factors Hindsight bias: The tendency for people to exaggerate after knowing that something occurred how much they could have

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predicted it before it occurred. Harmful to field: For hindsight bias, things that occur just seem to be obvious to predict and this can be applied to experiments as well. For fundamental attribution error, it is easy to see people’s behavior as a reflection of their beliefs instead of being influenced

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by a certain situation (a.k.a. correspondence bias). What are the 2 basic human motives:  Self-esteem motive: need to feel good and change our construal to feel good

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Social-cognition motive: need to be accurate and how we think

about the social world Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology:  Behaviorism: a school of psychology maintaining that to understand human behavior, one need only consider the reinforcing properties 

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of the environment Gestalt: a school of psychology stressing the importance of studying

the subjective way in which an object appears in people’s minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object Social Problems social psychologists research and attempt to remedy:

reducing violence, and prejudice to increasing altruism and tolerance, how to conserve natural resources, practice safe sex, eat healthier food, conflict resolution, violence in the media, passion and love, relationships, etc.   Chapter 2  Hypothesis and Theories:  Hypothesis originate with a hunch. It is important to translate beliefs into hypotheses because this can lead to new approaches and better findings. Observational Methods: The technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior.  Ethnography: method in which researchers attempt to understand a

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group by observing it from the inside without imposing any preconceived notions they might have Archival Analysis: a form of the observational method in which the

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researcher examines the accumulated documents or archives of a culture Interjudge Reliability: level of agreement between 2 or more people who independently observe and code a set of data; by showing that 2 or more judges independently come up with the same observations, researchers ensure that the observations are not subjective, distorted impressions of one individual

Correlational Methods: the technique whereby 2 or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (use surveys, random selection, limits)  Correlation coefficient: statistical technique that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another. Correlations cannot be higher than 1 but the closer to 1 it is, the stronger the correlation. o A increases B o B increases A o A and B appear related because they’re both related to C 

Causation: correlation does not equal causation

Experimental Methods: the method in which the researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the independent variable  Independent variable: the variable a researcher changes or varies to 

see if it has an effect on another variable Dependent variable: variable a researcher measures to see if it is influenced by the IV the researcher hypothesizes that the DV will

depend on the level of the IV Internal and External Validity  Internal validity: making sure that nothing besides the IV can affect the DV. This is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions. o Random assignment to condition: a process ensuring that all

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participants have an equal chance of taking part in any condition of an experiment this ensures equal distributions External validity: The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people o Generalizeability across situations and generalizeability across

people Replications: Repeating a study often with different subject populations or in different settings (ultimate test for external validity)

Cross-cultural and evolutionary methods: research conducted with members of different cultures to see whether the psychological processes of interest are present in both cultures or whether they are specific to the culture in which people are raised. Precautions: imposing their own viewpoints and definitions learned from their culture onto the culture they are studying. Evolutionary approach/theory: a concept developed by Charles Darwin to explain the ways in which animals adapt to their environments. Chapter 3 Social Cognition: How we interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions or how we think about our social world Automatic and Controlled Cognition:  Automatic thinking: Non conscious, unintentional, effortless. Stroop. Forming quick conclusions about a situation (schemas and 

heuristics) Controlled thinking: Conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful

(mental energy) Schema: Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the info people notice, think about and remember. Filling in the blanks and organize the world. Memory and thinking quickly (good and bad schemas). Good: Ambiguous situations and Bad: stereotyping and inaccurate memory recall. Priming: the process of making specific schemas accessible through recent experiences Accessibility: The extent to which schemas are at the front of the mind and likely to be used when making judgments (accessible through past experiences, common goals, temporarily accessible). Self-fulfilling prophecy: the case wherein people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act towards that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people’s original expectations, making the expectations come true. Judgmental Heuristics: Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently

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Availability: a mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind

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(News hype) Representational: a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case (Gambler’s fallacy) o Base rate info: info about the frequency of members of

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different categories in the population Anchoring and Adjustment: using a value as an anchor point and

failing to adjust our judgments appropriately Analytics and Holistic Thinking:  Analytics: A type of thinking in which people focus on the properties

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of objects without considering their surrounding context; this type of thinking is common in Western cultures Holistic: A type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the ways in which objects relate to each other;

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this type of thinking is common in East Asian cultures. Counterfactual Thinking: Mentally changing some aspect of the past as

a way of imagining what might have been  Thought Suppression and Ironic Processing   

Chapter 4

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Social Perception: the study of how we form impressions of and make

inferences about other people  Non-verbal communication: the way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch and gaze  Mirror neurons: understanding how others feel by feeling it ourselves (yawning)  Facial Expressions: species v. culture specific (Darwin). 6 basic emotions: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, surprise, and sadness.  Encoding: to express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back

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Decoding: to interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other

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people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension not kindness Decrease in decoding accuracy: due to affect blends (where one part of the face registers one emotion while another registers

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something different), culture, and the same expression can have different implications based on context. First Impressions: based on slightest cues such as facial appearance.

Thin-slicing (drawing a meaningful conclusion on another person’s personality based on a brief sample of behavior  Attribution theory: description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other’s behavior (Fritz Heider father of attribution theory, people were amateur scientists trying to understand other’s behavior by piecing together info until getting a reasonable cause)  Internal Attribution: the inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the person, attitude, character, or personality (father has poor parenting skills for 

disciplining his child inappropriately) External Attribution: inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation they are in

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(something in the situation caused the father’s behavior) Kelley’s Covariation model: a theory that states that to form an

attribution about what caused a person’s behavior, we note the pattern between the presence or absence of possible causal factors and whether the behavior occurs.  Consensus: info about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does. (Ex. He is

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the only person that slips/ all people slip) Distinctiveness: info about the extent to which one particular actor

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behaves in the same way to different stimuli (Ex. He slips while walking on other sidewalks/he never slips on other sidewalks) Consistency: info about the extent to which the behavior between

one actor and one stimulus is the same across time (He always slips) Correspondence bias: belief that one’s behavior matches their

personality

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Perceptual Salience: importance of info that is the focus of attention Two-step process (Internal/external attribution):analyzing another

person’s behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible situational reasons for the behavior, after one may adjust the original internal attribution  Internal: assume that the person’s behavior is because of  

something about them External: adjustment to focus on the situation that may have caused

the behavior Actor/Observer difference: we see our behavior caused by the situation

but see others as caused by disposition (its never my fault)  Self-serving attributions: Explanations for one’s success that credit internal, dispositional, factors and explanations for one’s failures that blame external factors (self esteem protection)  Defensive attributions: explaining away bad occurrences because they frighten us (that wont happen to me). Belief in a just world or believing that bad things happen to bad people because they deserve it  

Jeopardy

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Charles Darwin facial expression are SPECIES specific

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Which of the following would share equipment with bio department?

Social neuroscientists  Have no fault divorce increase rate of divorce? Question most likely to be asked by: Sociologist  Tina happy in marriage and making INTERNAL attribution of positive behaviors of spouse  Based on self-esteem approach which initiation strategy would you recommend? Make them suffer a little: ride backwards in elevator all week  It is MORE Distressing to miss bus by 5 min because its easier to imagine what you might have done to catch the bus  Why is construal so important? Peoples behavior is affected by their interpretation of events not only the events  Fritz Heider not only reacting to behavior of roommate: reacting to what you think your roommate is thinking or perceiving

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Counterfactual thinking is like controlled thinking in that it is Effortful

but automatic like Involuntary  Never misses out on a show. Behavior is: HIGH IN DISTINCTIVENESS  Relationship of birth order and leadership ability best method is: observational  Driving schemas differ between US and Australia  Hindsight bias occurs bc after event occurs people: Explain why event occurred making it seem inevitable  Based on meta analysis by mezulis which is true? Self serving bias stronger in Canada than India  Ethical issue of discovering new research: Concern for welfare of participants  Are some people better leader than others? Who might ask this? Personality psychologist  1 reason why its important to see cultural influences of social psych processes: helps us understand whether certain psych process  AM I a good employee? See last few good things she’s done in the job  More likely to make self serving attributions? Boxer  The whole is different from sum of its parts this statement is example of GESTALT psych  Availability heuristic associated w Accessibility (characteristics of schemas)  Conscious thought superior to distraction? When decisions requires simple rules  Archival research can tell about relationship of 2 or more variables  3 reasons why schemas are accessible: priming, chronic accessibility and common goal 

09/20/2017 

09/20/2017 ...