Exam 2 Study Guide 102 - Lecture notes 5-8 PDF

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Exam 2 Study Guide Chapter 11 Where Did We Come From? The Evidence for Evolution OBJECTIVES         

Define biological evolution, and distinguish it from other forms of nonevolutionary change in organisms. Illustrate the theory of common descent using a tree diagram. Summarize how Darwin’s experiences led him to develop the outline of the theory of evolution. Detail the modern biological classification system, and explain how it supports the theory of evolution. Explain how homologies in anatomy and genetics, even in useless traits, support the theory of evolution. Describe how details of embryonic development support the theory of evolution. Define biogeography, and explain how it supports the theory of evolution. Explain how the fossil record provides direct evidence of evolutionary change in species over time. Articulate why the theory of evolution is considered the best explanation for the origin of humans and other organisms.

LECTURE OUTLINE 11.1 What Is Evolution? A. Biological evolution is based on changes in populations that are based on inherited characteristics. (Figure 11.1) B. Members of the same species can interbreed but are most often studied as members of populations in specific geographical locations. C. The theory of evolution explains the origin of species from a common ancestor and the resulting relationships among all organisms. (Figure 11.2) 11.2 Charles Darwin and the Theory of Evolution A. Darwin was influenced by his travels and by contributions from scientists such as Hutton and Lyell. (Figure 11.3) B. During his five-year voyage on the HMS Beagle Darwin collected many forms of evidence for the theory of common descent. (Figure 11.5) C. Based on fossils and his extensive observations of plants and animals, Darwin proposed natural selection as the mechanism underlying evolution. (Figure 11.6, Figure 11.7) D. Alternative hypotheses were developed to try and explain the origin of modern organisms. (Figure 11.8) 11.3 Examining the Evidence for Common Descent A. Linnaean classification grouped organisms based on similarities. (Figure 11.10) B. Anatomical similarities and shared developmental pathways provide evidence for the theory of common descent. (Figure 11.11, Figure 11.12, Figure 11.15) C. Vestigial traits in plants and animals show the biological heritage in organisms. (Figure 11.13, 11.14) D. DNA evidence further supports the common descent theory. (Figure 11.16, Figure 11.17)

E. The geographic distribution of organisms and fossil evidence give clues to the past history of organisms. F. Fossils helped with providing evidence of evolutionary change in mammals and other human ancestors. (Figure 11.18) G. Multiple lines of evidence reveal that humans and apes came from a common ancestor. (Figure 11.23) H. Radiometric dating measures the amount of radioactive decay to determine the age of the fossils. (Figure 11.21, Figure 11.22) 11.4 Are Alternatives to the Theory of Evolution Equally Valid? A. Other suggested hypotheses do not explain the diversity of life as well as the theory of evolution. (Figure 11.25, Table 11.1) B. Evolutionary theory helps us understand what we see and predict reactions to changes in the natural world. (Figure 11.26)

Chapter 12 An Evolving Enemy Natural Selection OBJECTIVES        

Describe the history of tuberculosis in human populations, and explain why current treatments are ineffective against some strains of the disease. List the four observations that led to the inference of natural selection. Explain how natural selection causes evolutionary change. Provide examples of evidence that supports the hypothesis that natural selection leads to the evolution of populations. Describe how natural selection works on allele frequencies in a population. Discuss why natural selection does not result in “perfectly adapted” organisms or drive organisms toward some ideal state. List the three patterns of selection, provide examples of each, and explain how they lead to different outcomes. Using your understanding of natural selection, explain why combination drug therapy is an effective tool to combat drug resistance.

LECTURE OUTLINE 12.1 Return of a Killer A. Tuberculosis is caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and infects more than two billion people around the world. (Figure 12.1, Figure 12.2, Figure 12.3, Figure 12.4) B. MDR-TB and XDR-TB have evolved resistance to the main-line antibiotics used to treat tuberculosis.

12.2 Natural Selection Causes Evolution A. Individuals in a population vary in their characteristics. (Figure 12.6) B. Some of the variation among individuals can be passed on to their offspring. (Figure 12.7) C. Not all organisms that are born will survive to reproductive age. (Figure 12.8) D. Differential reproduction and survival occur because of adaptations; natural selection passively selects for those adaptations that improve fitness. (Figure 12.9, Figure 12.10) E. Natural selection can be tested in the lab but is observed commonly in wild populations. (Figure 12.12, Figure 12.13) 12.3 Natural Selection Since Darwin A. Mutation introduces variation into a population; natural selection promotes some variants over others. (Figure 12.14) B. Natural selection is random and does not progress to perfection. C. Misconceptions about natural selection still exist. (Table 12.1) D. Directional, stabilizing, and diversifying are three patterns of natural selection. (Figure 12.15) 12.4 Natural Selection and Human Health A. The development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (such as MDR-TB and XDR-TB) follows Darwin’s observations. Bacteria able to survive exposure to antibiotics will pass resistance to future generations. B. A drug regimen consisting of multiple drugs for a longer time period can combat the development of resistance. (Figure 12.17)

Chapter 13 Understanding Race Speciation and Macroevolution OBJECTIVES         

Define biological species, and list the mechanisms by which reproductive isolation is maintained by biological species. Describe the three steps in the process of speciation. Explain how a “race” within a biological species can be defined using the genealogical species concept. List the evidence that modern humans are a young species that arose in Africa. List the genetic evidence expected when a species can be divided into unique races. Summarize the evidence that indicates that human races are not deep biological divisions within the human species. Provide examples of traits that have become common in certain human populations due to the natural selection these populations have undergone. Define genetic drift and provide examples of how it results in the evolution of a population. Describe how human and animal behavior can cause evolution via sexual selection and assortative mating.

LECTURE OUTLINE 13.1 What Is a Species?

A. A species comprises a group of individuals that share a gene pool and that can interbreed with each other but not with members of other species. (Figure 13.1, Figure 13.7) B. Reproductive barriers isolate one species from another and may be either prefertilization or postfertilization barriers. (Table 13.1. Figure 13.2) C. Speciation results from isolation and changes in the gene pool, as well as through the development of reproductive isolation mechanisms. (Figure 13.3) D. Darwin suggested that speciation occurs through gradualism, whereas Stephen Jay Gould proposed the concept of punctuated equilibrium. (Figure 13.8) 13.2 Are Human Races Biological? A. Races are considered populations of a single species that have accumulated changes that distinguish them from other populations. B. Genealogical species share unique evolutionary lines of descent and a common ancestor. (Table 13.2) C. Physical characteristics, such as hair texture, eye shape, and skin color, are used to delineate humans into races. D. Most evidence supports the hypothesis that all human populations are descendants of African ancestors. E. Changes in gene frequency reveal evolutionary activity and the resulting effects are studied in population genetics. (Figure 13.9) F. No alleles specific to a particular race have been discovered. (Figure 13.10) G. Populations within a race are often as different as populations compared across races. (Figure 13.11) 13.3 Why Human Groups Differ A. Natural selection plays a role in how human groups differ. (Figure 13.13, Figure 13.14) B. Convergent evolution can shape similar characteristics because of similar environments. (Figure 13.15, Figure 13.16, Figure 13.17) C. Genetic drift, whether involving the founder effect or the bottleneck effect, produces changes in gene frequencies in a population by chance. (Figure 13.18, Figure 13.19) D. Sexual selection can create selective pressure toward particular traits. (Figure 13.20) E. Assortative mating is when individuals choose mates based on characteristics that are similar to their own. (Figure 13.21)

Chapter 14 The Greatest Species on Earth? Biodiversity and Classification OBJECTIVES     

Cite the current estimate of the number of species described by science, and explain why this number is only an estimate. List the three major domains of life, and describe the basic characteristics of each domain. Provide a broad overview of the history of life on Earth. Briefly describe the characteristics of prokaryotes. Summarize the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotic cells.

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List the major characteristics of the four major kingdoms of Eukarya: Protista, Animalia, Fungi, and Plantae. Define adaptive radiation, and provide examples of where this has occurred in the history of life. Describe the characteristics of viruses, and explain why they are not considered living organisms. Describe how evolutionary classifications of living organisms are created and tested, and explain how these classifications can be useful to scientists.

LECTURE OUTLINE 14.1 Biological Classification A. Biodiversity is the variety existing within and among living organisms. B. Systematists specialize in describing and categorizing organisms. (Figure 14.1) C. Geologic periods are characterized by groups of organisms that lived during that time period. (Table 14.1) D. Organisms are classified into three major domains according to their evolutionary relationships. Domains are further subdivided into kingdoms. (Figure 14.3, Figure 14.4, Table 14.2) 14.2 The Diversity of Life A. Organisms classified in the Bacteria and Archaea domains are prokaryotic and unicellular. (Figure 14.5, Figure 14.6) B. The endosymbiotic theory explains the evolution of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts from bacterial ancestors. (Figure 14.7) C. Protista contains a wide diversity of organism that are eukaryotic. (Figure 14.8, Table 14.3) D. Eukaryotic organisms in the kingdom Animalia are multicellular, motile during some stage in life, and able to ingest other organisms. (Figure 14.9, Figure 14.10, Figure 14.11, Table 14.4) E. Fungi include yeasts and molds; these organisms produce a wide variety of antibiotics. (Figure 14.12, Figure 14.13, Figure 14.14, Table 14.5) F. Members of the kingdom Plantae provide their own food through photosynthesis; flowering plants make up the majority of this kingdom. (Figure 14.15, Figure 14.16, Table 14.6) G. Viruses consist of either DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein-covering capsid. (Figure 14.17) 14.3 Learning about Species A. The rich diversity of organisms is fascinating and a new frontier for human exploration. B. Knowledge of the ecology of organisms can help scientists learn about the past and predict the future. C. Cladistics can help us explore the evolutionary history of closely related species. (Figure 14.18, Figure 14.19) D. Evolutionary history can be tested by comparing DNA. (Figure 14.4)

Practice Questions: How do scientists use the term theory? A) as a hypothesis that has not yet been tested B) as a hypothesis that seems logical but cannot be tested because it's impractical to do so C) as a set of findings that are supported by repeated testing D) as ideas which are so obviously true that testing is not required

Which of the following is not part of the theory of natural selection? A) Individuals in a population vary. B) Some variation can be passed on to offspring. C) Populations produce more offspring than the environment can support. D) All species are descended from a common ancestor.

According to the theory of common descent, how should each species on Earth today compare? A) They should look very similar to all other species. B) They should not have ancestors in common with members of other species. C) They should have a single ancestor in common. D) They should have DNA that is mostly unique from other species.

What is the primary source for new, unique genes in a population? A) mutation B) natural selection C) artificial selection D) crossing over

Which shows the steps of speciation in the correct order? A) evolutionary changes, geographic isolation, reproductive isolation B) genetic incompatibility, geographic isolation, evolutionary changes C) geographic isolation, evolutionary changes, reproductive isolation D) reproductive isolation, genetic incompatibility, geographic isolation

What type of reproductive isolation is observed when two plants require different amounts of darkness to produce flowers? A) gamete incompatibility B) temporal isolation C) mechanical isolation D) behavioral isolation

What effect do assortative matings have on populations? A) They cause one sex to be much different than the other. B) They cause isolated groups to be more similar to each other. C) They increase the rate of mutations. D) They maintain appearance differences between groups.

Which taxonomic level would contain members that are the most similar? A) phylum B) genus C) kingdom D) family

Which kingdom would include an organism that is multicellular and makes its own food? A) kingdom Animalia B) kingdom Fungi C) kingdom Plantae D) kingdom Protista

Which kingdom would include an organism that is multicellular, relies on other organisms for food, and reproduces by spores? A) kingdom Animalia B) kingdom Fungi C) kingdom Plantae D) kingdom Protista...