Final Exam Anatomy and Physiology 2 PDF

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Dr Taylor's A&P 2 Final Exam- Comprehensive ...

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Final Exam Anatomy and Physiology 2!!!!! Metabolism = II (2) ●

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glycolysis, krebs cycle, ETC, which one is false ○ glycolysis: the process of oxidizing one glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules ■ NAD is reduced to NADH ■ 2 ATP’s are formed ■ uses: glucose phosphate, fructose phosphate, fructose biphosphate, dihydroxyacetone phosphate, glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate, biphosphoglycerate, phosphoglycerate, phosphoenol pyruvate, pyruvate ○ krebs: oxidizing pyruvate into 2 CO2, 3 NADH, most ATP produced from this! ■ technically only produces 1 ATP per cycle ■ uses: citrate, isocitrate, succinyl coA, alpha ketoglutarate, oxaloacetate, succinate, fumarate, malate ■ glucose to pyruvate=oxidized, pyruvate to lactate=reduced, lactate to pyruvate=oxidized, pyruvate to glucose=reduced ○ ETC: pumps electrons through complexes 1-4, to transfer electrons to O2 molecules (not H2O molecules) Cytosolic NADH goes through malate asparate shuttle to complex one, and glycerol phosphate shuttle moves brown fat cells from cytosol to complex 2, only energizes 2 proton pumps ○ mitochondrial NAD goes to complex 1, mitochondrial FADH2 goes to complex 2 when is CO2/O2 produced and needed ○ glycolysis is anaerobic ■ 1 CO2 is produced in glycolysis ○ krebs cycle you only need CO2 ■ you need GDP for substrate level phosphorylation to form GTP to then form ATP ■ co2 is produced as well ○ for ETC you need an NAD coming in ○ if you don’t have oxygen then you’ll have fermentation

Endocrine = IIIII IIIII IIIII I (11) ● ●

HORMONES LIST Low blood glucose, low glucocorticoids, increased body temp → CRH (hypothalamus) → ACTH (adenohypophysis) → steroids (adrenal cortex) → increases Blood Glucose and Blood Pressure ○ ACTH: increases blood glucose ○ Mineralocorticoids: (aldosterone) Na/ Cl retention, K+ excretion, increase BP ○ Glucocorticoids: (cortisol/hydrocortisone) lipolysis, proteolysis, gluconeogenesis, anti-inflammatory

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Gonadocorticoids (androgenic hormones): testosterone, estrogen, progesterone Low blood glucose, low fatty acid, rise of amino acids→ GHRH (hypothalamus)→ h  GH (adenohypophysis)→ promotes growth and cell division, indirectly stimulates chondrocytes and osteoblasts conserves proteins and carbohydrates, hyperglycemic effect (excess glucose) High blood glucose, high fatty acids, hGH (blood), stress→ GHIH/somatostatin (hypothalamus/pancreas) → hGH (adenohypophysis)→ promotes growth and cell division, indirectly stimulates chondrocytes and osteoblasts conserves proteins and carbohydrates, hyperglycemic effect (excess glucose) (INHIBITING) High TH, fasting, high iodine, sympathetic act→ TRH (hypothalamus) → TSH/thyrotropin/thyroid (adenohypophysis) stimulating hormone → TH/thyroxine/thyroid hormone (thyroid gland)→ increase cellular metabolism, heat production (PROMOTING) Cold temp, decreased metabolic rate, pregnant, decreased thyroxine→ TRH (hypothalamus) → TSH/thyrotropin/thyroid (adenohypophysis) stimulating hormone → TH/thyroxine/thyroid hormone (thyroid gland)→ increase cellular metabolism, heat production PRH (Hypothalamus) → PRL (adenohypophysis) → ○ PRL: prolactin, lactogenic hormone, stimulates mammary glands to produce milk, released due to high levels of estrogen ○ PIH/ Dopamine: (in males) inhibit PRL Low BP, low Na in blood → angiotensinogen (kidneys) → a  ngiotensin I → angiotensin II (lungs) → increases BP ○ Angiotensin II: vasoconstriction, simulates aldosterone puberty/sex cell production → GnRH (hypothalamus) → F  SH and L  H/ICSH (anterior pituitary) → stimulation of follicles/gametes in gonads CT (thyroid): decreases blood calcium, stimulates osteoblasts PTH (parathyroid): increases blood calcium, stimulates osteoclasts, activates Active vitamin D (calcitriol) Melatonin (pineal gland): circadian rhythm E/NE (adrenal medulla): sympathetic, fight or flight response, vasoconstriction, dilation in bronchioles, decreases digestive and urinary output ○ Aldosterone (adrenal cortex)- deals with the conversation of sodium in the body, increase blood pressure ■ due to: high potassium, low sodium, low blood pressure, low chloride, also ACTH causes the release of this, renin, angiotensin I, angiotensin II ○ ADH/vasopressin (neurohypophysis)- deals with the conservation of water in the body, increase blood pressure ■ due to: high potassium, low sodium, low blood pressure, low chloride ○ ANP (atrium of the heart)- deals with the excretion of sodium, decrease blood pressure ■ due to: low potassium, high sodium, high chloride, high blood pressure

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BNP (ventricles of the heart)- deals with the excretion of the sodium, decrease blood pressure ■ due to: low potassium, high sodium, high chloride, high blood pressure water or lipid soluble ○ Steroids ■ sex hormones: testosterone, estrogen, progesterone ■ corticosteroids ■ glucocorticoids: cortisol (hydrocortisone) ■ mineralocorticoids: aldosterone ■ gonadocorticoids: androgenic hormones ○ Thyroxine (TH) ○ Calcitriol (Active vitamin D) uses PTH ○ Prostaglandins: eicosanoid, paracrine secretion ○ Leukotrienes: eicosanoid secreted from WBC’s hormone latency period ○ Lipid soluble has longer latency period ○ Water soluble has shorter latency period ○ Latency period negatively correlates with clearance time ○ Latency= how long it takes them to activate does it use a precursor ○ Anything in the body that would stimulate a hormone! characteristics of hormones ○ Water soluble: amino acid based, unbound in the blood, fast clearance, short latency, short term effects, membrane bound receptors, utilizes secondary messengers, affect existing enzymes ○ Lipid soluble: lipid based (except TH), bound in the blood, slow clearance, long latency, long term effects, intracellular receptors, bypasses secondary messengers, affects gene transcription word recognition, parts of second messenger system, which one the word belongs to ○ cAMP: receptor, G protein, adenylate cyclase, cAMP, kinase, PDE, inhibitory and excitatory ○ Ca2+: receptor, G protein, phospholipase C, DAG, protein C, calcium channels, calmodulin digestive and inter-digestive periods, which events would be increasing or decreasing related to when you are taking food in ○ absorptive=digestive (during meals): parasympathetic activity, more glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and insulin (more reuptake), glycogenesis, lipogenesis ○ postabsorptive =interdigestive (between meals): sympathetic activity, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, gluconeogenesis, gH, cortisol, glucagon, epinephrine General adaptation system

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Alarm: immediate response, epinephrine secretion, sympathetic activity, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, rapid change in circulation (constriction/dilation), sweating, shivering, increased heart rate, decreased digestive and urinary activity, short term stress Resistance: long term response, continued sympathetic activity, ADH (vasopressin) secretion, renin angiotensin pathway activated, increases blood pressure, mineralocorticoids secreted (aldosterone), ion and water retention, glucocorticoid secretion, increasing glucose, increase lipolysis, increase proteolysis, increase gluconeogenesis

Blood = IIIII II (9) ●

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Coagulation ○ Coagulation: blood clotting through fibrin ○ Agglutination: cells sticking together in response to blood transfusion ○ Hemostasis: how the body stops bleeding Hemostasis ○ Coagulants: ■ Intrinsic and Extrinsic pathways ■ Thrombopoietin = hormone that keeps adequate number of platelets in blood to prepare for clotting ○ Anticoagulants: ■ Thrombomodulin, protein C, Fibrin, Antithrombin III, Heparin, Prostacyclin ■ In healthy cells, prevents clotting substrates for prothrombinase/thrombin ○ Prothrombinase: prothrombin → thrombin ■ Thrombomodulin: inhibits thrombin ○ Thrombin (factor II): fibrinogen → fibrin plasma proteins ○ Albumins- smallest plasma proteins, but the most abundant, they turn white when heated, blood OP ○ Globulins- have a globular shape ■ Alpha globulins- bind to and transport bilirubin (a byproduct of red blood cell breakdown) and various steroids, including some of the same lipid soluble hormones transported by albumins ■ Beta globulins- transport metals; e.g. iron and copper ■ Gamma globulins- also called immunoglobulins or antibodies, most abundant type of globulin protein, play a vital role in the body’s defense by attaching to and neutralizing potentially harmful bacteria, viruses, and toxins ○ Fibrinogen- secreted from the liver, 5% of plasma proteins, plays a vital role in blood clotting by changing into fibrin (insoluble), clotting removes this from plasma

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transfusions and blood type ○ A+= has A and D agglutinogens, and anti B ■ can donate to A+ and AB+ ■ can receive from A+, A-, O+, O○ A-= has A agglutinogens, and anti B, anti D ■ can donate to A-, A+, AB-, AB+ ■ can receive from A- and O○ B+= has B and D agglutinogens, and anti A ■ can donate to A+ and AB+ ■ can receive from B+, B-, O+, O○ B-= has B agglutinogens, and anti A, anti D ■ can donate to B-, B+, AB-, AB+ ■ can receive from B- and O○ AB+= has A and B and D agglutinogens ■ can donate to AB+ ■ can receive from ALL BLOOD TYPES!!! ■ *universal recipient! but that doesn’t necessarily mean ○ AB-= has A and B agglutinogens, and anti D ■ can donate to AB- and AB+ ■ can receive from A-, B-, O-, and AB○ O+= has no agglutinogens, has anti A and anti B ■ can donate to O+, A+, B+, AB+ ■ can receive from O- and O+ ○ O-= has no agglutinogens, has anti A, anti B, and anti D ■ can donate to O-, A-, B-, AB-, O+, A+, B+, AB+ ■ can receive from Ointrinsic vs extrinsic ○ Intrinsic pathway: clotting factors, platelet factor III→ factor X ■ Within the blood ■ Activated by foreign substance: glass surface, etc ○ Extrinsic pathway: Tissue factors, clotting factor → factor X ■ Comes from outside of the blood ■ In blood vessel walls, damages vessel and surrounding tissues ■ Tissue factor= tissue thromboplastin, factor III, thromboplastin agglutinogens, agglutinins, how to classify ○ if you have the blood type, you have the agglutinogen ○ if you don’t have the blood type, you have the agglutinin Biliverdin, bilirubin terms ○ heme→ biliverdin (green)--> bilirubin (yellow, excreted in bile)--> excreted in bile→ urobilinogen (intestines) --> stercobilin (feces, brown), ■ from heme, amino acid + urobilinogen → urobilin created, excreted in urine types of blood cells, what basophils/eosinophils do

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All WBC = leukocytes!!! NEB’s are PMN’s!!!! New Lymphocytes Mean Extra Blood Granular: PMN (polymorphonuclear) Agranular: MN (mononuclear) (g) basophil = least common granulocyte, two lobes, promote inflammation during allergic reactions (g) eosinophils = two lobes, weak phagocytes, most effective against large invaders (parasites), prevent spread of inflamation (g) neutrophils = most common WBC, smallest, aggressive phagocytes (a) monocytes = largest WBC, differentiate to make macrophages (a) lymphocytes = most abundant agranulocyte, most common in lymph vessels, differentiate into T cells and B cells

Heart = IIIII I (10) ● ●

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pacemaker cells, contractile cells, depolarization, hyperpolarization, NA, K, Action Potential: Leaky Na, fast Ca, Volt K ■ Pacemaker cells (autorhythmic cells): in RA, set heart rate but don’t contribute to force of heartbeat ■ Conduction cells: sends action potentials between pacemaker and contractile cells Action Potential: Leaky Ca, Fast Na, Volt K, Slow Ca ■ Contractile cells: mechanical force, atrial and ventricle walls factors affecting cardiac output: bainbridge principle, preload, afterload ○ preload- ventricles are most related to preload, it is how much the ventricles expand and how much blood they able to push into next area ■ starling’s law is related to the ventricle, the stretch that occurs before contraction is positively correlated with amount of blood pushed out ○ afterload- function of the heart is to get oxygenated blood out to the rest of the body, after load is the back pressure in the aorta that the left ventricle has to push against to get blood out ■ picture that he drew on the board with the circles- you have a picture of this ○ atria are most related to the bainbridge principle = the amount of blood that is backed up in the atrial means that there will be a stronger “atrial kick” as the atria tries to empty all blood into ventricle ○ Bainbridge: atrial kick ○ Starlings: ventricles picture of EKG (1,2,3,4) blood is flowing through here at point four ○ P-R interval: time when action potential is traveling from SA nodes to purkinje fibers

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Q-T interval: time it takes the ventricle to fully depolarize and repolarize P-Q segment: atria completely depolarizing S-T segment: ventricles completely depolarizing P wave: atrial depolarization QRS complex: atrial repolarization, ventricular depolarization ■ Isovolumetric contraction ■ Best time to measure EDV ■ Lupp sound: AV valves close T wave: ventricular repolarization ■ Isovolumetric relaxation ■ Best time to measure ESV ■ Dupp sound ■ All valves closed: SL valves close Quiescent period = time in between T and P wave, at rest

how does the heart and body respond to changes in BP, which statement is false: venous return, stroke volume, ESV, EDV, preload, filling time, cardiac output, isovolumetric contraction, mean arterial pressure, response to blood pressure change ○ High blood pressure: high Venous return, low EDV, high ESV, low SV, low preload (stretch), low CO, low filling time, high afterload ○ Mean arterial pressure: diastolic pressure + ⅓ pulse pressure ○ CO= SV x HR

Vessels = IIIII II (8) ● ●

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movement of blood and factors affecting it ○ Skeletal and respiratory pumps help blood pump throughout the body factors that affect blood flow to different parts of the body ○ Exercise (normal temp): Blood flow to Skeletal muscles, brain, Heart and lungs ○ Exercise (high temp): Blood flow to Skeletal muscles, brain, skin, lungs, heart ○ Rest: Blow flow equally throughout the body Vasoconstriction vs vasodilation ○ Vasoconstrictors: angiotensin II, calcium ions (ca2+), endothelin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, thromboxane, ADH (vasopressin) ○ Vasodilators: ADP, ANP, bradykinin, CO2 in tissue, H+ in tissue, histamine, NO peripheral resistance ○ if you increase peripheral resistance, its harder to push the blood to distant tissues. you're preventing blood from moving excessively in peripheral tissue so that it can go to the main tissues (brain) chemoreceptors, baroreceptors

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Chemoreceptors: respond to chemicals in the blood and CF (high CO2/H, low O2) ■ Carotid bodies: in carotid sinus ■ Aortic bodies: in aorta ■ Carotid and aortic bodies when stimulated cause chemoreceptor reflex: vasomotor center causes vasoconstriction in body, vasodilation in brain ○ Baroreceptors: Respond to high blood pressure fluid shift, vagal tone, vasomotor tone ○ Fluid shift phenomenon: when a person stands “at attention” with knees locked- very little skeletal muscle pump action in the legs, blood begins to pool in the veins due to the downward pull of gravity. This greatly increases the BP in the veins and prevents blood from entering them from the capillaries. The higher pressure squeezes more liquid out of the capillaries and into the surrounding tissues, greatly reduces venous return to the heart, decreasing blood pressure ■ This drop in blood pressure can eventually cause a person to faint ○ Vagal tone: HEART- CIC impulses sent through vagus nerve, inhibits heart, slows the cardiac pacemaker cells so they don’t depolarize/fire too often ■ Increasing vagal tone, inhibits the heart ○ Vasomotor tone: VESSELS- at rest, steady stream of impulses from vasomotor center that keep vessels slightly constricted, allows vessels to constrict/dilate in response to low/high blood pressure response to blood pressure change ○ High BP → more baroreceptor impulses to… ■ CIC → inhibitory impulses to heart (on vagus nerve) → slower HR/less cardiac output ■ Less vasomotor center activity → less impulses to vessel → widespread vasodilation ○ Low BP → less baroreceptor impulses… ■ Less CIC activity → fewer impulses to heart → faster HR ■ CAC → impulses to heart (on cardiac nerve) → faster/more forceful beats ■ More vasomotor center activity → more impulses to vessels → vasoconstriction

Lymph = IIII (3) ●

movements through the body, trace, drainage ○ Tissue fluid leaks out of blood → lymph capillaries → small lymph vessels → lymph trunks → lymph ducts → L/R subclavian vein ○ Lymphatic trunks ■ Jugular: R/L sides of head/neck

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■ Intestinal: intestine/abdominal viscera ■ Bronchomediastinal: R/L sides of thorax ■ Lumbar: R/L side of lower back, lower extremities/pelvis/lower abdomen ■ Subclavian: R/L sides of upper extremities/shoulders ○ Lymphatic ducts ■ Thoracic/left lymphatic = everything on the left and everything on the right below the right rib cage ■ Right lymphatic = everything on the right from the rib cage and above Passageways ○ Lymphatic capillaries (parallel to blood capillaries) absorb excess tissue fluid → lymphatic vessels deliver the lymph to large lymphatic trunks (collecting tube) → lymphatic ducts (R/L) lymphatic structures, where they are relative to each other, red pulp/white pulp, follicles, trabeculae, Peyers patches, tonsils ○ red pulp (spleen)- RBC graveyard, makes up most of the spleen’s tissue and consists of reticular fibers, sinusoids, and aggregations of red blood cells and macrophages ○ white pulp (spleen)- lightly colored “islands” surrounded by red pulp, surrounds the central arteries of the spleen, it contains reticular fibers and abundant lymphocytes, which are important in the immune response ○ Follicles- in nodes, masses where lymphocytes concentrate in the outer cortex region, contain germinal centers that contain lymphocytes ○ Trabeculae- inward extensions (little beams) that divide the lymph organ into sections ○ Peyer’s patches- group of lymphoid nodules that help prevent the movement of bacteria from the intestine into the blood (in the walls of the ileum and appendix) ○ Tonsils- lymphoid nodules located in the pharynx, they contain deep channels called crypts that trap bacteria and other foreign particles ■ Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)- posterior wall of the nasopharynx where they trap particles passing through the nasal cavity ■ Palatine tonsils- exist on the lateral borders of the oropharynx between the palatoglossal arch and palatopharyngeal arch ■ Lingual tonsils- posterior part of the tongue in the oropharynx ● The palatine and lingual tonsils trap particles entering the body through the oral cavity ■ Tubal tonsils- surround the openings to the auditory (Eustachian) tubes and prevent pathogens from moving from the nasopharynx into the middle ear cavity ○ Lymph Nodes, filters... ■ Intestinal = intestines/abdominal viscera ■ Lumbar = abdominal organs other than intestines ■ Inguinal = groin region (trunk and legs) ■ Axillary = armpit (arms)

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Cervical = head and neck ● If you have a pain when you’re sick it’s due to your lymph nodes diffuse vs encapsulated ○ Encapsulated organs: Spleen, Thyroid, and Lymph Nodes ○ Diffuse: lymph capillaries, small lymphatic vessels, lymphatic trunks, lymphatic ducts, lymphoid nodules ■ MALT: mucosa associated Lymphatic tissue: lymphoid nodules beneath mucous membranes near colon that prevent bacteria to be reabsorbed into the blood, Peyer’s patches are a type of MALT ■ Tonsils: upper, MALT lower !

Defense = IIIII II (6) ●

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plasma proteins ○ T cell...