Final Exam review - Biology 1000 Foundations of Life. Taught by Dr. Markham, hes\'s a prettyt laid PDF

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Biol 1000 Life - - All living things share the following properties o The ability to respond to stimuli o The ability to self-regulate (Homeostasis) o Bind and release energy o Genetic Program o Growth and Reproduction o The capacity to evolve o A Common structure and physiology Historical Views of ...

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Bi ol1000 Li f e - Al ll i vi ngt hi ngsshar et hef ol l owi ngpr oper t i es o Theabi l i t yt or espondt ost i mul i o Theabi l i t yt osel f r egul at e( Homeost asi s) o Bi ndandr el easeene r gy o Ge ne t i cPr ogr am o Gr owt handRe pr oduc t i on o Thecapaci t yt oe v ol ve o ACommons t r uc t ur eandphysi ol ogy - Hi st or i calVi ewsofLi f e o Me chani s t i cVi ew  Li vi ngt hi ng sar enotdi ffer entf r om nonl i vi ngt hi ngsandcanbe descr i bedbyt hel awsofphysi csandche mi s t r y o Vi t al i st i cVi ew  Li vi ngt hi ng shav es peci alpr oper t i esandcanno tbedescr i bed us i ngt hel awsofphysi csandc he mi s t r y  Ac c or di ngt ot hevi t al i s t i cvi ew t hemechani s t i cvi ew doe snot e xpl ai n:  Se l f r egul at i on  Gr owt handdev e l opment  Re pr oduc t i on  Adj ust i ngt oenvi r onment alc ondi t i ons  Li f ehasauni quef or c e/ener gy/s ubs t anc e( pr ot opl asm) o Or gani c i stvi ew  Li vi ngt hi ng scanbedescr i bedbyt hel awsofphys i csand c he mi s t r y  Li vi ngt hi ng sar euni queduet ot hei rOr gani z at i onandGe ne t i c pr ogr am

Bas i cChemi s t r y - At oms o Madeupoft wor egi ons  Pr ot ons  Posi t i v eChar ge  Numberofpr ot onsde t e r mi ne st het ypeandc har ac t er i s t i cs oft heat om  Neut r ons  Noc har ge - El e ct r onShe l l s o Re gi onsar oundt henuc l euswher ee l ec t r onse xi st  1stshe l lhol dsupt o2e l ec t r ons  2nd she l lhol dsupt o8  3rd she l lhol dsupt o8

Bi ol1000 - Pr oper t i esofAt oms o Pr ot onsat t r ac tandequalamountofe l ec t r ons o Whe nt heval enc el ay erofe l ec t r onsi snotf ul lt heat om i sconsi der ed uns t abl e  Uns t abl eat omsi nt er ac tt obe comes t abl ee . ggai n,l os e,orshar e e l ec t r ons o Theamountofe ner gyane l ec t r onhol dscanc hange - Che mi calBonds o Thei nt e r ac t i onofe l ec t r onsbe t we enat oms o Thet ypeofbondi sde t er mi ne dbyt het ypeofat om o Type sofche mi calbonds  I oni cbonds  Thet r ans f erofe l ec t r onsf r om oneat om t oanot he r  Ther esul t i ngc har gedat omsar eknownasi ons  Posi t i v e l yc har gedi onsar eat t r act edt one gat i v e l yc har ged i ons  Cov al entbonds  Theshar i ngofe l ec t r onsbe t we enat oms  Thi sr esul t si nt hef or mat i onofmol ec ul es  Theshar i ngoft wopai r sofe l ec t r onsi sknownasadoubl e bond  Pol arc ov al entbonds  At ypeofc ov al entbondwher et hee l ec t r onsar enotshar ed e qual l yamongat oms o Thepr oper t i esofeachat omsdet e r mi ne show s t r ongl yi tat t r ac t se l ec t r ons  Pr oper t i esofwat e r  Thepol ar i t yofwat eral l owsi tt oactas asol v entf ori oni corpol arcov al ent s ubs t anc es o Hydr ophi l i c:subs t anc est hat di ssol v ei nwat e r o Hydr ophobi c:subs t anc est hatdo no tmi xwi t hwat er  Thepr e senc eofhydr ogenbonds o Cohesi on o Hi ghs peci fiche at( t heamountof e ner gyneededt ohe atwat e ri s hi gh) o Hi ghhe adofvapor i z at i on o Expansi ononf r eez i ng - pH o TheamountofH+ i nasol ut i on o Ac i d  Gi ve sH+t oasol ut i on

Bi ol1000 o o o o o

Bas es  Absor bH+f r om sol ut i ons Ac i di csol ut i onshav eapH l essert han7 Bas i cSol ut i onshaveapH gr eat e rt han7 Eac huni tofc hang er epr esent sa10xc hangei nH+ Buffe r  Asubs t ancet hatabs or bsorr e l eas esH+  Mi ni mi z espH c hange si nsol ut i ons

Ce l l s - Thr eebasi cf eat ur esofc el l s o Compar t me nt al i z at i on  Al l owsf ors peci al i z at i onamongc el l s o Se l f Assembl yandHomeos t asi s  Al l owsf ort her epai rofdamagedpar t sandmai nt ai nani nt e r nal bal ance o Re pl i cat i on  Ev er yce l li sf or medf r om apr e exi s t i ngc e l l - Mul t i c el l ul aror gani sms o I nmul t i c el l ul aror gani smss peci al i z at i onoc cur sbe t we enc e l l sasopposed t oi nsi det hem - Ce l lSi z e o Ce l l sge ne r al l yr angef r om 1100μm - Eukar yot i cCe l l s o Or gane l l essur r oundedbyamembr ane - Pr okar y ot i cCe l l s o Noor gane l l essur r ounde dbyme mbr anes - Whatr egul at esce l l ul arsi z e o Mi ni mum si z e  Themi ni mum si z eofac el li sl i mi t edbyt hece l l sabi l i t yt opac k s t r uc t ur alc omponent si nt o t hec e l l o Maxi mum Ce l l  Themaxi mum si z eofac e l l i sl i mi t edbyt hesur f ac e ar eat ov ol umer at i ooft he c e l l o I nmul t i c el l ul aror gani smsmost c e l lt oc e l lconnec t i onsal l ow f ort he pas sag eofmat er i al o Mul t i c e l l edor g ani smsne eds t r uc t ur est hatcanmaxi mi z esur f ac ear e a  E. g.Al v eol i - Compone nt sofCel l s o Membr ane s

Bi ol1000

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 Compar t me nt al i z at i on  Se l ec t i v ePas sageofMat er i al( semi per me abl e)  Si t esofc hemi calr eac t i osn  Re cept or sf orc e l lr egoni t i on Cyt opl as m  Fl ui dmedi um andor gnae ke s Cyt os ke l e t on  Pr ovi de ss t r uc t ur eandcont r ol smov ement Ce l lWal l  Pr ovi de ss t r uc t ur eandpr ot e c t i on  Notf oundi nani malc e l l s  MadeofCe l l ul osei npl antc e l l s Or gane l l es  Nonmembr aneboundor gane l l es  Ri bosomes o Synt hesi z espr ot e i ns  Membr aneboundor gane l l es  Nuc l eus o Hasadoubl emembr ane o Cont ai nst hegene t i ci nf or mat i onoft hec el l  Smoot hEndopl asmi cRe t i c ul um o Si t eofl i pi dpr oduc t i on  RoughEndopl asmi cRe t i cul um o Pac kagi ngofPr ot ei ns o Ri bosomesar epr esentont her oughER  Gol giBodi es o Cr eat esecr e t or ypr oduc t sf r om packagedpr ot ei ns f r om t heER  Vac uol es o St or ag ear e as  Chl or opl ast s o Si t eofphot os ynt hesi s o Doubl eext er nalmembr anewi t hahi ghl yf ol ded i nt er nalmembr ane  Mi t oc hondr i a o Doubl eext er nalmembr ane o Fol dedi nt e r nalmembr ane o Si t eofce l l ul arr es pi r at i on

Phot os ynt he si s - Phot os ynt he si s o Phot os ynt he si si st her educ t i onofCO2 t oacar bohydr at eusi nge ner gy f r om l i ght

Bi ol1000 o

6H2O +6CO2+ene r gy C6H12O6+6O2

Low energy electrons

I neukar yot esphot osynt he si st akespl ac ei nt hec hl or opl as t s I npr okar yot e sphot osynt he si st ake spl ac eonani nt er nal l yf ol ded membr ane Pi gme nt si nv ol v edi npho t osynt hesi s o Chl or ophyl l s  Themai nphot osynt he t i cpi gment  Absor bsmai nl yr edandbl uel i ght  Thee l e ct r onsar el oose l yhe l dt oge t herbyanat om ofMg o Ac c essor ypi gment s  Absor bsphot onsofwav e l engt hst hatchl or ophyl lcannotabs or b  Tr ans f er sl i ghtene r gyt oc hl or ophyl l  o Pi gme nt susedi nphot osynt hesi sar eor gani z edi nt ophot osyst em IandI I  Gr oupsofchl or ophyl landaccess or ypi gment sar ef oundont he t hyl akoi dmembr ane  Thet hyl akoi di st hesi t eofl i ghtde pendantr e ac t i ons  The yar emembr anebounds t r uct ur esf oundi ns i det he c hl or opl ast  As t ac koft hyl akoi dsi scal l edagr anum How i sl i ghtc onver t edi nt opot ent i alene r gy? o Phot onsf r om r e dandbl uel i ghtar eabsor bedbyt hec hl or ophyl lwhi l e phot onsf r om gr e enl i ghtar er e fle ct edgi vi ngc hl or ophyl lagr e en appear anc e  Theabs or bede l ect r onsar epasse dt ot hee l ect r ont r ans por tc hai n St agesofpho t osynt hesi s o Li ghtde pendantr eac t i ons  Li ghtene r gyi st r ans f er r edt oe l ec t r onsandt omakeATPanda hi ghene r gye l ec t r onsour c ef ort hel i ghti ndependentr e ac t i ons o Li ghti ndependentr eac t i onsorDar kr e ac t i ons  CO2i sr educedt oacar bohydr at e Li ghtde pendantr eac t i ons o Ene r gyf r om t hepr ot onsi sdi r ec t edt owar dschl or ophyl l o Theene r gyl ev e lofchl or ophyl le l ec t r onsi si nc r eas ed o Al l owi ngt hem t ode t ac hf r om t hec hl or ophyl l o Phot osys t em I I  El e ct r onsar epasseddowni nane l ec t r ont r ans por tc hai n  H+ i sac t i ve l yt r ans por t edf r om t hes t r omai nt ot het hyl akoi d c ompar t ment o o

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High energy electrons

Bi ol1000 Thes t r omaar et i nyhol eorpor esonpl ant st hatar eused f orgase xc hange  H+pas sesbacki nt ot hes t omat hr oughATPsynt hase  Thi spr oduc esATP  Phot os ys t em I Ii sonl yr es ponsi bl ef ort hepr oduct i onofATP o Phot osys t em I  El e ct r onse xc i t edbyene r gyf r om t hephot onscant akeoneoft wo pat hs  Thecy c l i cpat h o El e ct r onst r av e lt hr oughanel ec t r onc hai nbac kt o phot osys t em I I o Thi spr oc esspr oducesATPbyc he mi osmosi s  Thenoncyc l i cpat h o El e ct r onsar epassedt oane l ect r oncar r i ersuc has NADP+  Thi sc onver t sNADP+t oNADPH si nc et he2H+ mol ecul esat t ac ht ot heNADP+ o NADPH t henr e l easest het woe l ec t r onsbecomi ng NAHP+onceag ai n  The seel ec t r onsar ese ntt ophaseI Ioft hel i ght i nde pe ndentr eac t i on - Li ghti ndependentr eac t i ons( dar kr e ac t i ons ,orCal vi ncy c l e) o The r ear et hr e ephasesoft het hel i ghti ndependentr eac t i ons  Car bonfixat i on  Dur i ngt hi sphasesCO2c ombi ne swi t ha5car bonsug ar ( RuBP)ands pl i t si nt ot womol e cul es  Re duc t i on  El e ct r onsf r om NADPH ar edonat edt ot he3car bonc hai n f r om NADPH o Ene r gyf r om ATPi sr equi r edt opr e f or mt hi s  Oneoft het hr eecar bonpr oduct si susedt opr oduc e gl ucose  Re gener at i on  Oneoft he3car bonc ompoundsi susedt omakene w RuBP o Thi sr e qui r esATP - Ge ner ali nf or mat i on o Car bohydr at esmakei nphot osynt he si spr ovi det hecar bonsour c eand e ner gyf oral lot he ror gani cmol ecul es o Phot osynt he si sr e sul t edi nar api di nc r e as eofO2pr e senti nt he at mos phe r eov er2bi l l i ony ear s - Phot os t asi s o Phot os t asi si st hebal anc ebe t we enl i ghtanddar kr e ac t i ons o I ft her educ t i onc ent er sr emai nr educe dt he ybe comedamag ed o Or gani s msbui l dphot osynt he t i csys t emst obal ancel i ghtanddar k r eac t i ons 

Bi ol1000 o

Dar kr eac t i onsar et empe r at ur esens i t i v ewhi l et hel i ghtr e ac t i onsar enot

Ce l lDi vi s i on -

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Ge ne t i ci nf or mat i oni nce l l sar es t or edi nt hec hr omos omes Hi st onesar eal kal i nepr ot ei nst hatDNAwi ndsar ound DNAi st i ght l yc oi l eddur i ngce l ldi vi s i on Pr okar y ot es o Asi ngl ec hr omosomei sat t ac he dt ot hepl asmamembr ane o Pl asmi dsar esmal lci r c ul arst r andsofDNA Eukar yot es o Chr omosome sar est or edi nt henuc l e us o Eac hspeci eshasas peci ficnumberofc hr omosomes o Eac hc hr omosomec ont ai nsge ne t i ci nf or mat i on Al lce l l sar ef or medt hr ought hedi vi si onofot herce l l s Chr omosome s o Chr omosome sar et hegene t i ci ns t r uc t i onsf orl i f e o Si st erc hr omat i ds  I de nt i calc opi e soft hesamec hr omos ome o Ce nt r omer e  As peci al i z edsequenc eofDNAt hatl i nkssi s t erc hr omat i ds Re qui r e ment sf orgene t i ci nf or mat i ont obec opi ed o Thec hr omosomesmus tbecopi ed o Thec opi esmus tbedi vi ded Di vi si onofPr okar yot i cc e l l s 1.Chr omosomei scopi ed 2.Pl asmame mbr anegr ows 3.Thec hr omosomeandi t sc opyar ef or cedapar tbyt hepl asmamembr ane 4.Membr anedi vi dest heor i gi nalce l li nt ot woc e l l s Eukar yot i cCe l lDi vi si on o 2Phas es  I nt er phase  Ape r i odofme t abol i cac t i vi t y  DNAi sc opi ed  Ce l lspendt hemaj or i t yoft he i rt i mei nI nt er phase o St agesofI nt er phase  G1orGap1  Nor malc e l lgr owt h  Hi ghl ev e lofpr ot ei nsynt hesi s  Cyt opl as mv ol umei ncr eases  Mor eor gane l l esar epr oduc ed  SorSynt he si s  DNAi ss ynt hes i z ed  NumberofChr omosomesdoubl es  G2orGap2

Bi ol1000    

Re sumpt i onofgr owt hi npr e par at i on f ordi vi si on Di vi si onofmi t oc hondr i a Di vi si onofc hl or opl as t s

Mi t osi s  St agesofMi t osi s o Pr ophase  Thec hr omosomesar et i ght l ypac ked  Themi t o t i cspi ndl e sf ormi cr ot ubul e or gani z i ngcent er s( MTOC)al soknownas c ent r osomes  Thenuc l earmembr anebr e aksdown  St andsoft hes pi ndl eat t ac ht ot heeac hs i st er c hr omat i d  Onc et hemi t o t i cs pi ndl e sc ont actt hesi s t er c hr omat i dsf r om bot hsi dest heybegi nt o c ont r ac t o Me t aphase  Thel onges tphase  Thec hr omosomesar el i ne dupal ongt he me t aphasepl at e( mi ddl eoft hece l l ) o Anaphase  Thesi s t erc hr omat i dsar epul l edapar tt o opposi t eendsoft hece l l  For mi ngdaught erc hr omat i ds o Te l ophase  Twone w nuc l earmembr ane sf or m  Chr omosome sunwi nd  Mi t ot i cs pi ndl ebr e aksdown  Cyt oki ne si soc cur s

- Cyt oki ne si s o Ani malCe l l s  Ar i ngofmi cr ofil ament sc ont r ac tf or mi ngac l eav agef ur r ow  Thi sr esul t si nt woi dent i caldaught erc e l l s o Pl antCel l s  Vesi c l escont ai ni ngce l lwal lmat er i alar edeposi t edi nmi ddl eoft he c e l lwal l  Ane wc e l l ul armembr anegr owsar oundt hene wc e l lwal l  Causest hef or mat i onoft hece l lpl at e  Re sul t si nt woi dent i caldaught erce l l s Re pr oduci t i on - Type sofr epr oduc t i on o Se xual  Combi ni ngge ne t i ci nf or mat i onf r om t woi ndi vi dual s

Bi ol1000  Al waysi nv ol v esdev e l opmentf r om asi ngl ec e l l Asexual  Pr oduc t i onofne wi ndi vi dual st hr oughce l ldi vi si on  Mi t osi sandCyt oki ne si s  I nmul t i c el l ul aror gani smst her ear et wome t hodsofas exual r epr oduc t i on  Buddi ng o Pr oduc t i onofamul t i c el l ul aror gani sm t hatbr eaks offf r om apar e nt  Si ngl ec e l l ul ardev e l opment o I nvol v est heuseofsexor gans  Asexualr epr oduc t i oni st heonl yf or m ofr e pr oduct i oni n pr okar y ot es  Commoni nsi ngl ec el l edeukar yot es,pl ant s ,andf ung i - Se xualr epr oduc t i on o Ge ne s  Uni t sofhe r edi t y  Par t i c ul argene sar eal waysf oundont hesamel ocat i onona c hr omos ome  Di pl oi d  2se t sofge ne seac honadi ffer entc hr omosome  Hapl oi d  1se tofge nes o Homol og ousChr omos omes  Chr omosome scont ai ni nggene sf ort hesamec har act er i s t i cs  Onei si nher i t edf r om eachpar ent  Di pl oi dCe l l shav ehomol og ousc hr omosome s o Al l e l es  Di ffer entf or msofagene  Homol og ousc hr omos omesmayhav edi ffer e ntal l el es  Si st erc hr omat i dsal way shavet hes ameal l e l es o Game t es  Hapl oi dsexc e l l s  Eggands per mc el l s o Me i osi s  Pr oduc t i onofhapl oi dc el l sf r om di pl oi dc el l s o Fe r t i l i z at i on  Uni onofg ame t est opr oduceadi pl oi dc el l( z ygot e) - Pr oduc t i onofGame t est hr oughmei osi s o Ce l l st hatpr oduc eg ame t esdupl i cat et hei rDNAdur i ngi nt er phase o Me i osi sI  Se par at i onofhomol og ousc hr omos omes o Me i osi sI I  Se par at i onofs i st erc hr omat i ds - Me i osi sI o

Bi ol1000 Pr ophaseI  Homol og ousc hr omos omespai roff  The ycr oss ov erf or mi ngt e t r adsandexc hang epor t i onsof DNA  Spi ndl epr ot ei nsat t ac ht oc hr omos ome s o Me t aphaseI  Te t r adsl i neupi nt hemi ddl eoft hec e l l  Homol og ousc hr omos omesl i eonei t hersi deoft heme t aphase pl at e o AnaphaseI  Homol og ousc hr omos omesar epul l edt oopposi t eendsoft hece l l s  Eac hmat er nalandpat er nalce l lcangot oei t here ndoft hec el li n apr oce ssknownasi nde pende ntassor t ment  Thi scaus eshal foft her esul t i ngce l l st obeX andt heot he r hal ft obeY o Te l ophaseI  Thec e l li ss pl i ti nt wo  Thef or mat i onofanuc l earmembr anei snotguar ant eed  Ther esul t i ngt woce l l sar eno tgene t i cal l yi dent i calduet o Cr ossov erandGene t i cRec ombi nat i on - Me i osi s o Me i osi sI Ii ssi mi l art omi t osi s o Eac hpai rofhomol og ousc hr omosomesar es or t edi nt oeachne w ce l lar e s or t edi nt oeachne wc e l li nde pende nt l yoft heot herpai r st hr ough i nde pe ndentas sor t ment  Mat er nalandpat er nalc hr omos omesdonotne edt ol i neupont he s amesi deoft heme t aphas epl at e o

Mol e cul arGe ne t i cs - How ge ne t i ci nf or mat i oni s: o St or ed o Re pl i cat ed o Tr ans l at ed - DNA o Char ac t er i s t i cs  DNAcar r i esal ar geamountofi nf or mat i onar r ang edi nmonome r s  I tcanbeac c ur at e l yc opi ed  St abl eundervar i ousenvi r onment alcondi t i ons  Thei nf or mat i oncar r i edi sc odef orami noaci dsequenc es o St r uc t ur e  DNAi sanuc l ei cac i d  I ti smadeupofnuc l eot i des o St r uc t ur eofNuc l eot i de s  5car bonsug ar  Phosphat egr oup

Bi ol1000  Ni t r og enBas e Thesug arofonenuc l eot i debondst ot hephos phat e ofanot he rnuc l eot i de( a3’bondst oa5’andvi ce v er sa) o Thesug arandphos phat ef or mt hebac kboneoft he nuc l eot i deandal way shav et hesamec he mi cal s t r uc t ur e o Ni t r og enBas es  4possi bl ebas es  Adeni ne( A)  Thymi ne( T)  Cyt osi ne( C)  Guani ne( G  Theni t r og ensequenc ei sasour ceof i nf or mat i on  DNAs t r andsexi s tast wosepar at es t r andst hatr uni nopposi t e di r e ct i on  Hydr ogenbondsf or m be t we ent heni t r ogenousbases  Cyt osi newi l lonl ybondwi t hGuani ne  Adeni newi l lonl ybondwi t ht hymi ne o AT o CG  Thedoubl es t r andsofDNAar et wi s t edar oundeac hot he ri nt oa doubl ehe l i x DNAr epl i cat i on  Ones t r andofDNAac t sasat empl at ef ort heconst r uc t i onofa ne ws t r and  Se mic ons er v at i v er epl i cat i on:eac hne ws t r andofdoubl eDNA c ont ai nsanol dst r and  Pr oc essofr epl i cat i on 1.Doubl es t r andsofDNAar epul l edapar t 2.Compl i me nt ar ynuc l eot i de sar esynt hesi z edi nt one w DNA s t r ands 3.Hydr ogenbas esr e f or m be t we enni t r og enbases  DNAHel i cas e:br eakshydr ogenbondsbe t we e ndoubl es t r ands  Onl ymov esi nonedi r e ct i on  DNAPol ymer as e:j oi nsnuc l eot i dest oge t heri nt hei rpr oper s equenc ebyr e adt hesequenc eoft heol ds t r and  Mov esf r om 5’t o3’  Re qui r e sapr i me r( shor tsequenc eofnuc l e ot i des)t os t ar ta ne w DNAs t r and  Ones t r andi smadec ont i nuous l ywhi l et heot he ri smadei n s ect i ons  DNAl i g as e:j oi nsDNAs t r andst oge t he r  New s t r andsr unopposi t et ot heol ds t r and o

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Bi ol1000 - RNA( Ri bonuc l ei cac i d) o St r uc t ur e  Di ffer ent5car bonsug art hanDNA  Thymi nei sr epl ac edbyUr ac i l  AU  CG  Doesnotne cessar i l yf or m adoubl es t r and  Al s ocanac tasanenzyme - Pr ot ei nsynt he si s o DNAc ode sf orami noac i dsequenc e o 4di ffer e ntni t r og enbasesi nt heDNAc odef or20di ffer entami noaci ds o Gr oupsoft hr eebas esknownasc odonsf or mt hecodef orasi ngl eami no aci d o St agesofpr ot ei nsynt he si s  Tr ans cr i pt i on  Take spl ac ei nt henuc l eus  Pr omot er o DNAs eque nc ewher et r anscr i pt i ons t ar t s  Te r mi nat or o DNAs eque nc ewher et r anscr i pt i onends  RNApol ymer as e o Enzymet hatcar r i esoutt r anscr i pt i on  St epsofTr anscr i pt i on 1.I ni t i at i on a.RNApol ymer as eat t ac he st oDNAatt hepr omot er 2.DNAs t r andsar epul l edapar t 3.El ongat i on a.RNAnuc l eot i desar ebondedt oge t herbasedon t heDNAs equenc e 4.Te r mi nat i on a.Tr ans cr i pt i onocc ur sunt i li tr eac hesat er mi nat or s equenc e b.Att het er mi nat orsequenc et heRNApol ymer as e de t ac he sf r om t heDNAandr e l e as est heRNA s t r and i . Thi sRNAs t r andi sknownasmesseng er RNAormRNA  Tr ans l at i on  Occ ur si nt hecyt opl as m ont her i bosomes  Ri bosomesar emadeofRNAsandpr ot ei ns o Al i gnsmRNAandt r ans f erRNA o Hast wobi ndi ngs i t esf ort RNA  t RNA o Ami noac i dat t ac hmentsi t e o Ant i c odon

Bi ol1000 Ase toft hr eecompl i ment ar ynuc l eot i des c ompl i ment ar yt ot hemRNA St epsi nt r ansl at i on 1.Ri bosomeandt Rnat oge t her a.Thi sal waysoc c ur satt hes t ar tc odon 2.Asecondt RNAmol ec ul ebi ndst ot hesecondbi ndi ng s i t eoft her i bos ome 3.Theami noaci df r om t RNA1i sr e mov e dandbonde dt o t RNA2 4.Thefir s tt RNAi sr e l eas e df r om t her i bosome 5.t RNA2shi f t st obi ndi ngsi t e1 6.Thepr oc essi sr epeat edunt i las t opc odons equenc ei s r eac hed 7.Theami noaci di sr e l eas edf r om t hefinalt RNA 

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