LING 1000- Final Exam Review pdf PDF

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LING*1000 Exam Review: Introduction to LinguisticsUnit 1; Chapter 1: What is Language Topic 1: Language: A System of Signs -expressions include elements like; words, phrases, sentences, stress and intonation -when a sign is clearly related to what it represents (sun means warmth) than it is not an a...

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LING*1000 LING*1000 Exam Review: Introduction to Linguistics ! Unit 1; Chapter 1: What is Language Topic 1.1: Language: A System of Signs ! -expressions include elements like; words, phrases, sentences, stress and intonation ! -when a sign is clearly related to what it represents (sun means warmth) than it is not an arbitrary symbol! -mimetic is an iconic, non arbitrary relationship! Topic 1.2: Language is a Pattern of Structure and Rules ! -there is a development of grammatical competence= what sounds right! -human language is known to posses duality ! -language is prescribed (we are bing prescribed what to use)! -though sentences can be infinite, long sentences are unlikely ! -we have unconscious constraints to our sentences! -what we know is linguistic competence and what we use is linguistic performance -teaching grammar is sued to fulfill language requirements Topic 1.3: Language and Dialects ! -languages vary when separated geographically or socially ! -Mandarin and Cantonese cannot be verbally interchanged but the signs are the same ! -there are no superior languages! -children can learn languages very quickly ! Topic 1.4: Modes of Linguistic Communication! -three modes of communication (speaking, writing and signing)! -speaking: the main mode of language ! " -advantages to using speech: can talk in darkness, or to those who cannot see ! " -we can vary our volume, pitch, rhythm, and speed, this adds meaning and message ! -writing: messages are coded in pictures! " -some signs can be understood regardless of language ! -signalling: visible gestures ! Topic 1.5: Origins of Language ! -language was the same for all but as we separated it changed ! -languages change over time ! -do not know what the first language was! -Herodotus experiment: when a man raised two infants in isolation by a mute man, still spoke the ancient language of Phrygian. This caused people to believe it was the original language ! -what is known about language: where there are humans, there is language, there are no primitive languages, languages evolve over time, normal children are capable of learning the language they are exposed to! Unit 2; Chapter 2: Morphology Topic 2.1: Morphology and Words! -adding ’s’ to the end of a word adds plurality ! -more than one word can be used to describe a sentence ! -content or open class words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs (computer, she, open, walking)! -function or closed class words: prepositions, pronouns, determiners, auxiliary verbs and modals (the, by)! Topic 2.2: Morphemes: The Smallest Units of Meaning ! -units that are added to the root are called morphemes ! -if they are added to the beginning, they are called prefixes ! -if they are added to the end, they are called suffixes -examples; grandmother-> grand|mother, disregard-> dis|regard! Topic 2.3: Bound and Free Morphemes !

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LING*1000 -when a morpheme can stand on its own and cannot be broken down any further it is called a free morpheme! -when a morpheme cannot stand on its own because it does not have meaning, needs to be attached to other roots (un-,-ish) they are called bound morphemes ! " -generally called affixes, can be called prefixes and suffixes depending on where they " " " are located in relation to the free morpheme ! -some languages have infixes which are morphemes that are actually inserted into a root word! -some languages have circumfixes, which are morphemes that are attached to the beginning and the end of the root word! " -examples include Malagasy, a Madagascar language (dimby-> d-in-imby)! Topic 2.4: Rules of Word Formation: Derivational Morphology ! -suffixes that change nouns-> adjectives " -(u or i) al, ful, ic, less, ous! " -examples: accident-> accidental, danger-> dangerous! -suffixes that change nouns-> verbs " -ize ! " -examples: hospital-> hospitalize, material-> materialize ! -suffixes that do not change nouns-> nouns " -ship! " -examples: friend-> friendship! -suffixes that change verbs-> nouns " -al, ance, ant, (at)tion, er, ment! " -examples: refuse-> refusal, consider-> consideration ! -suffixes that change verbs-> adjectives ! " -able! " -ive! " -examples: intrude-> intrusive, do-> doable! -suffixes that change verbs-> adjectives -en, ize! " -examples: soft-> soften, equal-> equalize ! -suffixes that change adjectives-> nouns " -ity, ness! " -examples: active-> activity, kind-> kindness! -prefixes that change base, but not the category nouns-> nouns! " -anti, ex, super ! -prefixes that change the base, but not the category adjectives-> adjectives " -in/im, un, super! -prefixes that change base, but not category verbs-> verbs! " -de, dis, mis, re, un! Topic 2.5: Rules of Word Formation: Other Word Formation Processes ! -compounding: noun +noun= noun, adjective +adjective= adjective, adjective +noun= noun, adjective +verb= verb! -conversion: word changes its syntactic category! -blends: taking two or more words but contain the beginning of one and the end of another ! -backformations: enter vocabulary by taking away the suffix ! -abbreviations or clipping: get reduced and become part of our language ! -word coinage: words created fro some purpose (kleenex= tissue)! -eponyms: words derived from proper names! -acronyms: words that are made up of initials ! Topic 2.6: Rules of Word Formation: Inflectional Morphology ! -plural morphemes: suffixes that attach to nouns (book=books)!

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LING*1000 -possessive morphemes: attach to noun phrases to express ownership (John’s book)! -comparative and superlative: suffixes like -er, -est, attach to adjectives to express comparison (more, most, less, least)! -verb tenses: use inflectional morpheme ’s’ to show third person singular present of regular verbs (it snows), ing can be used to indicate that an action is ongoing (to be running, are talking)! Unit 3; Chapter 3: Syntax, The Sentence Patterns of Language Topic 3.1: What is Syntax! -examines how words from phrases! -know how to combine words so that they make grammatical sense ! -syntax allows for multiple groupings, which can lead a sentence to become ambiguous -allows us to decide which sentences are ungrammatical! -syntactic knowledge also enables us to determine grammatical relations -allows us to determine the subject the direct object ! " -example: Mary hired Bill (Mary is the subject and Bill is the direct object)! Topic 3.2: Structures of Sentences ! -structure is the way that parts or elements are arranged together to form a larger unit! -use of tree diagrams to show to subparts of a sentence ! -a tree diagram example !

-constituents are the natural grouping of a sentence ! " -ways to find out what a constituent is: ask questions; for example, ‘what are the girls " " " pleased with?’ and the answer would be ‘the good news’. This would be a constituent. -constituents can also be rearranged in the sentence ‘the good news pleased the girls’! -constituents or not? if it is an answer to a question, if it can be substituted with another word, such as ‘there’, or it can be relocated.! Topic 3.3: Syntactic Categories ! -‘the girls’ in the above tree, are also from a larger category or similar expressions. This means that we could substitute ‘the boys’, ‘the cats’, ‘your friend’ and so on and so on! -syntactic categories are a family of expressions that can be substitute for one another without the loss of grammaticality! -lexical categories such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs are all part of open class words because we are always adding to their inventory ! -Noun Phrases (NP): contain a noun, and it may be lead by a determiner (the, a, this, that, your, my, his, some, etc). They may also be proper nouns or a pronoun! " -Alex walked the puppy! " -My books are expensive ! -Verb Phrases (VP): contain a verb, and may also be preceded by other verbs like may, should, and have. They may be followed by a NP, and a PP! " -Alex walked the puppy/Alex has walked the puppy ! " -He spoke to her! -Adjective Phrases (AjP): consist of an adjective, and they may be followed by a noun, and preceded by and adverb! " -Alex walked the cute puppy!

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LING*1000 " -this is good! -Adverb Phrases (AdP): contain an adverb, which may come before an adjective, or may follow another adverb. It can also come before or after a verb. Adverbs usually say something about how, or where, or when an action took place.! " -Alex walked the very cute puppy! " -this book is highly accurate ! -Prepositional Phrases (PP): contain a preposition, followed by a NP. (in, with, and for are all examples)! " -Alex walked the puppy in the park -the hat with the feather Topic 3.4: Constituents ! -a single word or a group of words that belong together ! -each constituent is classified according to the main word in it, which is called the head Topic 3.5: How to Build Phrases Visually! -syntactic tree for ‘the child put the puppy in the garden’!

The rules for the notation is as follows:! -S (NP aux VP)! -NP (Det)(N)! -VP (V NP (PP))! -NP (Det (N))! -PP (P NP)! -NP (Det (NP))! Topic 3.6: Heads and Complements ! -verbs that need an object to complete the meaning are called transitive verbs. Verbs that behave like this include find, take, grab! -when constituents need something to complete them, they select complements, if the information is to required, they select adjuncts ! Topic 3.7: Structural Ambiguity ! -more than one phrase structure tree! -sentence has more than one interpretation ! -example would include; ‘the boy saw the man with the telescope’! Topic 3.8: Transformational Rules! -take the declarative sentence (represents the basic structure) or deep structure ! -a transformational rule then move the auxiliary to a place before the subject to create the surface structure ! " -‘move aux’ rule: move the highest Aux to adjoin to the sentence (the root)! " -when the aux is moved, this results in a gap in the tree, which is represented by a " " " blank space! -to find out if the sentences are transformationally related, when can run some tests, such as;! " -active > passive sentences ! " -there sentences ! " -PP preposing !

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LING*1000 Unit 4; Chapter 4: Semantics Topic 4.1: Lexical Semantics: Semantic Relations Among Words! -the words girl, woman, and lady all refer to females, but some have additional features as well! -semantic features are helpful in identifying how words are similar or different from one another ! -synonymy are words or expressions with the same meaning in most contexts (vacation and holiday)! -antonymy are words or phrases that are opposite one another with respect to some feature of their meaning (dark and light)! " -complementary pairs meaning of one word negates the meaning of another (if " " " something is dead, it is not alive)! " -gradable pairs the negative of one is not always the exact opposite of the other (if you " are cold that does not mean that you are hot)! -polysemy and homophony -polysemy occurs when a word has two or more meanings that are related ! " " -bright colours mean that the something also shines, or that person is intelligent ! " -homophony is when words that sound the same have meaning that are different ! " " -bat could mean baseball or the animal ! -hyponyms: words that share a feature and belong to a bigger class. rose, tulip, and daisy are all flowers -metonyms: work that are used to symbolically to represent another object or concept. Crown is a metaphor for the monarchy -meronyms: makes reference to a part of a whole. a finger is part of a whole -retronyms: new names given to a concept the has undergone cultural change! Topic 4.2: Semantic Relations in Phrases in Sentences ! -words and morphemes are the smallest units of language -principle of compositionality states that the meaning of a phrase or sentence depends on both the meaning of its words and how those words are combined structurally! -paraphrase: two sentences are basically the same, which means that if one sentence is true, than so is the other one.! " -they must have the same truth conditions ! -entailment: when the truth of one sentence necessarily expresses the truth in another (if someone breaks a window, that has to indicate that the window must be broken)! -contradiction: if one sentence is true, than another sentence also has to be false ! Topic 4.3: The Nature of Meaning ! -denotation: a well known concept that associates the meaning of a word or phrase with the entities that is refers to or its referents (heart is the organ that pumps blood, so it represents the actual thing it is making reference to! -connotation: on the other hand is the set of associations a word can evoke. Heart may evoke feelings of love, romantic love, etc.! -extension: makes reference to the referents (the things in the real world)! -intentions: makes reference to the inherent sense, and the concepts it evokes! -another way to represent the intension of the words, we break it down into its semantics components, or properties and features (componential analysis)! Topic 4.4: When Meaning Becomes Obscured ! -when something does not make sense, we say it is anomalous -the sentence ‘my spouse is single’ is grammatically correct, but this also makes no " " " sense linguistically ! -speaking in metaphors breaks semantic rules purposely to convey an idea ! " -‘my car is a lemon’ is an anomalous sentence, but, metaphorically, we understand " " " what is being portrayed !

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LING*1000 -idioms: are similar in structure to ordinary phrases expect that they tend to be frozen in form and do not readily enter into other combinations or allow the word order to change ! Topic 4.5: Pragmatics ! -pragmatics: concerned with the interpretation of linguistic meaning in context. Two kinds are relevant. There is linguistic context (the discourse that precedes the phrase or sentence to be interpreted. This means that when the sentence is taken by itself, it is essentially uninterpretable) Situational context (knowledge of the world. This means that the listener must have knowledge of the real world context! -presuppositions: our beliefs can actually be reflected in the way we use language by revealing our assumptions, by what we imply.! -deixis: Some expressions are understood only depending on the situation in which the interaction takes place. For example in expressions like my/your/his dog we don't know who the subject is and that information will have to be supplied to the hearer by the context. Similarly, this, that, today, tomorrow, here, there, in front, behind, are deictic expressions with no relevant meaning unless we have more context! Topic 4.6: Maxims of Conversation ! -situational context ! -we may not actually say what we mean, but our audience can infer the meaning ! -there are four principles or maxims ! " -quantity: say neither more nor less then the discourse requires ! " -relevance: be relevant in what is being said ! " -manner: be brief and orderly, avoid ambiguity and obscurity ! " -quality: do not lie, and do not make unsupported claims ! Unit 5; Chapter 5: Phonetics: The Sounds of Language Topic 5.1: Pronunciation and Spelling -accents are linguistic habits that we unconsciously use when speaking our mother tongue ! -phonetics attempts to describe all the sounds in human languages ! -the study of physical properties of the sounds is called acoustic phonetics -the study of the way that listeners hear and perceive these sounds is called auditory phonetics ! Topic 5.2: Phonetic Transcription and the International Phonetic Alphabet! -revision of the alphabet so that one letter could correspond to one sound ! -different letter may represent the same sounds! " -too, to, two ! " -clue, through, drew, shoe! -symbols are written in square brackets and they are sounds or phones! -~ is used to indicate that a phone has a nasality feature to it! -: is used to indicate a sound that is long or extended !

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LING*1000 -IPA is a very simple and effect way to transcribe accurately all the sounds that occur in all the languages of the world ! -bilabial, labiodental, and dental are all places of articulation -plosive, nasal, trill are all references to manner of articulation !

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Topic 5.3: Articulatory Phonetics and The Organs That Produce Speech Sound ! -sound is produced when there is movement of air! -air starts in the lungs and passes through the larynx, which contains vocal cords ! -above the larynx are a set of passages which make up the vocal tract consisting of the area of the throat between the larynx and pharynx (mouth or the oral cavity)! -in the production of speech, the following are used; the glottis, the our lips, our teeth, the tooth ridge, the palate, and the velum !

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LING*1000 Topic 5.4: Types of Phonation ! -pulmonic egressive airstream mechanisms means that the air is pushed outwards from the lungs! -ingressive articulation is another way to produce sounds, but the air is sucked into the oral cavity by the pressure created by the tongue. These sounds are called clicks and implosives ! -voicing refers to the presence of vibration of the vocal cords when the air passes through the pharynx [z] is a voiced consonant and [s] is a voiceless consonant ! -creaky voice is the irregular vibration of the vocal cords, and it can be found in some First Nations languages.! -sounds of language fall into two major natural classes: consonants and vowels -consonants are sounds produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract as " the air from the lungs is pushed through the glottis! Topic 5.5: Pulmonic Consonants: Place and Manner of Articulation! -the places of articulation are in the upper part of the mouth ! Places of Articulation ! -Bilabials: [p], [b], [m]! " we say these sounds by bringing both our lips together. examples include pin, bin, and "" " men. -Labiodental: [f], [v] ! " we also use our lips to form [f] and [v] as in fine and vine. These are articulated by " " " touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth.! -Interdentals: [θ], [ð]! " represented by the ‘th’ in the words thin, ether, then, etc. These are between the teeth " " " sounds in English. Tongue is placed against the back of the upper teeth.! -Alveolars: [t], [d], [n], [s], [z], [l], [r]! " when the tip or the blade of the tongue approached or touches the alveolar ridge. Can " " " be heard in words such as do, sue, zoo, moo, too, new. To produce a lateral [l] such as " lake, the tongue has to be raised to the alveolar ridge with the side of the tongue down. " " The [r] is produced in a variety of ways, and these sounds can be described as " " " " retroflex, in one languages, the [r] may be an alveolar trill. -Palatals: [ʃ], [ʒ], [dʒ], [tʃ], [j]! " to be able to produce sounds in the middle of words such as mission and measure, the " " front part of the tongue is raised to a point on the hard palate just behind the alveolar " " " ridge. examples include the sounds that being and end the words church and judge! -Velar: [k], [g], [w], [ŋ]! " produced by the raising the back part of the tongue to the soft plate or the velum. The " " " initial sounds and final sounds in kick and gig are examples. ! -Uvular: [R], [q], [G] ! " sound is produced when the back of the tongue approaches the uvula. These sounds " " " do not occur in English.! -Glottal: [h], [ʔ]! " the sounds that are made when the vocal cords are open or close together. Some " " " examples include, hat and who and hair. If the air is stopped completely at the glottis by " tightly closed vocal cords, then the sound that is produced is called a glottal stop, it " " " can be heard in words like button and Latin.! Manners of Articulation -speech sounds are differentiated by the way that the airstream is affected as it travels from the lungs up and out through the mouth and the nose.! -voiced and voiceless sounds: if the vocal cords are apart when the airstream is pushed from the lungs, the air passes freely into cavities. This would be an example of a voiceless sound, for example, the words sip, seat, and seek are all voiceless sounds. If the vocal cords are together, then the air stream forces its way through and causes them to vibrate. Some examples include cob, cod, cog, and daze, which are all voiced sounds.!

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LING*1000 -aspirated and unaspirated sounds: aspirated sounds are voiceless con...