Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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STUDY GUIDE: BMS 507

Chapter 1: Intro to A&P Homeostasis: the body staying in balance Positive Feedback: things have lost track of normal & out of homeostasis Negative Feedback: think of a seesaw, a little pos & a little neg, brings us back to homeostasis

Chapter 2: Levels of Organization Atoms: atomic # is # of neutrons, atomic mass is # of protons + # of neutrons Protons- in nucleus, + Neutrons- in nucleus, neutral Electrons: contribute to molecular bonding, Acids: substance that donate hydrogen ions to a solution Bases: accepts the hydrogen ions PH: scale that tells you how acid or base something is, is inversely logarithmic: smaller # more acidic, larger # less acidic Electrolytes: conduct electrical currents in solutions 

Cations- pos charged electrolyte, made by losing an electron

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Anions- neg charged electrolyte, made by gaining an electron

Enzymes: important because they lower activation energy, biological catalyst Water: important because it is an outstanding solvent -has high specific heat: holds the heat -allows us to have a transport medium -molecular structure: polar, looks like mickey mouse head, polar bonding, one side is a little neg and one is a little pos Types of bonds: Ionic- Cations and anions who are electrically attracted to each other ex: salt, easy to dissolve Covalent- most organic molecules, electrons sharing, valence electrons play a role Hydrogen bonds- polarity, attraction between a slight pos charge on the hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond and a slight neg charge on the other end

Inorganic- does not contain carbon and hydrogen together Organic- does contain carbon and hydrogen together

Carbohydrates- include sugars and starches Glycogen- animal starch, strings of glucose in animals, same role as starch Proteins- building structure Primary- string of amino acids Secondary- when they are coiled together with hydrogen bond, alpha helix Tertiary- coiling and folding Quaternary- several different molecules together, hemoglobin, multi unit proteins (DNA polymerase & rNA polymerase) Lipids- cholesterol, triglycerides 

Phospholipids (most important): polar end and non polar end

Refers to amount of solute: Hypotonic- has less solutes and loses water through osmosis Isotonic- equal when comparing to solutions Hypertonic- has more solutes and gains water through osmosis

ATP: high energy compound DNA- genetic material found in form of chromatin, found as chromosomes when dividing Transcription- when we go from DNA to mRNA, make copy of a gene into mRNA because it can leave the nucleus and DNA cannot, the mRNA goes through translation next Translation- when we go from mRNA to protein, important part of protein synthesis

Chapter 3: Cellular Levels of Organization

Cell membrane- phospholipid bilayer, allows material to move through it 

Diffusion- movement from high concentration to low concentration without use of cellular energy or specific carrier, can have a protein channel, NO SPECIFIC CARRIER

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Facilitated diffusion- movement from high concentration to low concentration, does not use energy but does use a carrier, moves big things

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Active transport- movement with a carrier and energy

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Phagocytosis- engulf large objects

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Receptor mediated endocytosis- when it binds to a receptor on the outside of the cell membrane

Organelles: (Know the functions) 

Golgi apparatus- packaging

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Rough ER- protein synthesis, has ribosomes on them that do translation

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Smooth ER- makes lipids and carbohydrates

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Nucleus- where DNA is

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Mitochondria- makes ATP, one of most important

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Centrioles- form spindle apparatus during cell division

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Lysosomes- digest things

Transmembrane Potential: difference in electrical potential (voltage) across the membrane of a lining cell Cell Cycle: G1: Normal cell functions plus cell growth, duplication of organelles, protein synthesis Interphase: Cell performs all its normal functions and prepares for cell division S: DNA replication, synthesis of histones G2: Protein Synthesis Mitosis: 1. Prophase: Begins when the chromosomes coil so tightly they become visible as a single structure. Spindle fibers extend between the centriole pairs. 2. Metaphase: begins as the chromatids move to a narrow central zone. It ends when all the chromatids are aligned 3. Anaphase: Begins when the centromere of each chromatid pair splits and the chromatids separate 4. Telophase: each new cell prepares to return to interphase Cytokinesis: the division of the cytoplasm into two daughter cells

Chapter 4: Tissue Level of Organization (do not need to know specifics about tissue types)

Epithelial tissue- surface of skin 1. Types of Tissue: o Squamous- thin and flat (simple- absorption and diffusion) (stratified- protection)

o Cuboidal- square shaped (simple- secretion and absorption) (stratified- sweat ducts and mammary glands) o Stratified- several layers o Columnar- tall, slender rectangles (simple absorption and secretion) (stratified- protection) 2. Membranes 

Mucous- secrete mucins

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Serous- watery secretions

Glands- produce fluid secretions

Connective Tissue: -Specialized cells -Extracellular protein fibers -fluid known as ground substance 

Adipose Tissue- fat cells

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Blood- form of connective tissue

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Lymph- extracellular fluid: blood and lymphatic system

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Collagen- most common in connective tissue proper, strong and flexible, tendons and ligaments

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Elastin- branched and wavy, return to original length after stretching, elastic ligament of vertebrae

Ligaments- connect bone to bone Tendon- attach muscle to bone

Cartilage: gel like ground substance for shock and absorption, avascular, no blood vessels Chondrocytes- cartilage cells Perichondrium- around cartilages, dense irregular connective tissue Avascular: no blood Articular Cartilage: important cartilage in joints

Inflammation: Triggered by damaged cell tissue Signs: 

Increased blood flow

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Increased vessel permeability

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Pain

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Increased Local Temperature

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Increased Oxygen and Nutrients

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Increased Phagocytosis

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Removal of Toxins and Wastes

Then, Inflammation Subsides, Leads to Regeneration

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System Skin: Cutaneous Membrane 

Epidermis: Top layer, protects the dermis, avascular o Stratum Corneum o Stratum Lucidum: only found in thick skin o Stratum Granulosum o Stratum Spinosum o Stratum Basale

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Dermis: Second layer under the epidermis, vascular o Papillary layer: dermal papilla, holds skin together o

Reticular layer: lots of connective tissue

o Subcutaneous layer: fat Pigments: 

Melanin: pigment produced by melanocytes

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Carotene: orange yellow pigment in epidermal cells

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Hemoglobin: blood in dermis

Perspiration: sweat to cool off skin Secretions: Sebum: waxy oily substance secreted from sebaceous glands in skin Arrector pili: sympathetic nervous system (goose bumps) Vitamin D: skin makes it with ultraviolet light

Chapter 6: Osseous Tissue and Bone Structure Bone: strong calcified calcium salt deposits Diaphysis- the shaft, heavy wall of compact bone

Epiphysis- end of bone Epiphyseal plate- where bone growth occurs Lacuna- where bone cell sit Lamella- layers of the matrix Canaliculi- form pathways for blood vessels Bone Cells: Osteocytes- sit there Osteoblasts- build bone Osteoclasts- break down and dissolve bone Periosteum- covers the bone, layer around bone Bone Formation: Endochondral Ossification: 1. Bone Collar Formation 2. Cavitation 3. Periosteal Bud Invasion 4. Diaphysis Elongation 5. Epiphyseal Ossification Intramembranous Ossification- dermal ossification, occurs in the dermis Epiphyseal plate: cartilage that is left in endochondral ossification, allows you to grow

Chapter 9: Joints

Joints- determines direction and distance of movement 1. Synarthrosis: Immovable joint, can be fibrous of cartilaginous 2. Amphiarthrosis: Slightly moveable joint, either fibrous or cartilaginous 3. Diarthrosis: Freely moveable joint, (aka synovial joint) Bursae: little pockets of synovial membrane full of synovial fluid Menisci: wedges of fibrocartilage Arthritis: Osteoarthritis: most common, effects those 60 or older, affects collagen formation Rheumatoid Arthritis: inflammatory condition that effects those between 40-60 Gouty Arthritis: Crystals of uric acid form within the synovial fluid of joints

Joint Movements:

Adduction- movement of limbs toward from the body Abduction- movement of limbs away from the body Flexion- reducing the angle between elements Extension- increasing the angle between elements Rotation- lift or right movement from anatomical position Circumduction- circular motion without rotation Range of Motion: How much you can move, shoulder has greatest range of motion

Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue (spend a lot of time here) Types of Muscles: 1. Skeletal 

Sarcomere: the smallest contractile unit of a striated muscle cell Thick Filaments: Primarily myosin Myosin- thick filament, have head and tails that form cross bridges Thin Filaments: Primarily actin Actin- form bridge Troponin- bind calcium, moves tropomyosin away Tropomyosin- covers up myosin binding sites on the actin

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum- membranous structure surrounding each myofibril; helps transmit action potential 

Calcium- released in response of action potential

T Tubules: direct action potential down into the sarcomere/ muscle fiber so that as we get depolarization it happens all over the muscle fiber at once so it contracts as a unit

2. Cardiac 3. Smooth Myofibril- lengthwise subdivisions within a muscle fiber; made up of bundles of protein filaments (myofilaments)

Muscle Metabolism: Aerobic: requiring oxygen, preferred, primarily mitochondrial, limited by oxygen Anaerobic: without oxygen, faster and doesn’t require oxygen but is less efficient Oxygen debt: amount of oxygen to get me back to where I was, getting rid of lactic acid

Lactic acid: produced in the muscle tissues during strenuous exercise, mild toxin Recovery Period: ATP & Keratin Phosphate: stored energy

Twitch: a single muscle contraction Tetanus: build up contractions, keep stimulating the muscle so it never relaxes Treppe; keep stimulating a muscle Motor Unit Recruitment: what allows someone to use different motor units simultaneously, brain makes decision Fast and Slow twitch fibers: slow twitch: full of myoglobin, full of oxygen and redish in color, good for endurance

Action potential- the way the reaction starts Neuromuscular junction- motor neuron and neural end plate meet Ach- neurotransmitter; chemical messenger released at presynaptic membrane that affect receptors of postsynaptic membrane Receptors- detect changes or respond to stimuli Synaptic Knob: Synaptic cleft- the small gap that separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic membrane Nodes:

Chapter 12: Neural Tissue

Neurons- the basic functional unit of the nervous system, carry action potentials Neuroglia- essential for survival and function of neurons Astrocytes- responsible for blood brain barrier Microglia- Remove cell debris, wastes, and pathogens by phagocytosis Ependymalcells- Line central canal of spinal cord and ventricles of brain, secretes cerebrospinal fluid Oligodentrocytes- Myelinate CNS axons; provide structural framework: Schwann cells- neurilemma cells that form myelin sheath around axons :PNS Myelin- insulates myelinated axons Functionality:

Depolarization- going from resting membrane potential, to a more pos #, depolarize cells by opening up sodium channels Repolarization- returning to resting potential after depolarization, occurs with opening of K+ channels Hyperpolarization: change in a cell’s membrane potential that makes it more negative ATPase: class of enzymes that catalyze the decomposition of ATP into ADP IPSP: graded potentials that are inhibitory EPSP: postsynaptic potential that makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential. Facilitation: makes it easier to reach threshold Subarachnoid space- along surface of spinal pia mater, holds blood vessels

Chapter 13: The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal Reflexes Dura mater- outer layer of spinal cord, tough and fibrous Arachnoid- middle meningeal layer, holds cerebrospinal fluid Pia mater- inner meningeal layer, mesh of collagen and elastic fibers bound to underlying neural tissue Cerebrospinal fluid- carries dissolved gases, nutrients, and wastes Dorsal root- contains axons of sensory neurons Ventral root- contains axons of motor neurons Dorsal root ganglion- contain cell bodies of sensory neurons Reflexes- rapid, automatic responses to specific stimuli Subarachnoid space- along surface of spinal pia mater, holds blood vessels Reflex Arc:

Chapter 14: The Brain and Cranial Nerves Functions of the hypothalamus- hormone production, emotion, autonomic function, sex drive, autonomic 

Endocrine- controlled by the hypothalamus

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Temp center- regulated by the hypothalamus

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Hunger- the feeding center; in hypothalamus

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Thirst centers- creates sense of thirst; in hypothalamus

Cerebral cortex- located in the cerebrum; controls higher mental functions; has gyri (elevated ridges), sulci (shallow depressions), and fissures (deep grooves)

Visual cortex- Information from sight receptors Auditory cortex- Information from sound receptors Motor cortex- surface of precentral gyrus, Directs voluntary movements Sensory cortex- surface of postcentral gyrus; Receives somatic sensory information

Brocas area: a region of the brain concerned with the production of speech, located in the cortex of the dominant frontal lobe. Wallarian degeneration: can regrow axon Pineal Gland: neural tissue in the posterior portion of the roof of the diencephalon: secretes melatonin cerebellum- coordinates repetitive body movements Basal nuclei- direct subconscious behaviors, embedded in white matter of cerebrum Cranial Nerves- I olfactory sense of smell, II Optic vision, III Oculomotor eye movement, VIII Vestibulocochlear hearing and balance, X Fagus mized sensory and motor and throughout thorax and abdomen Limbic System- emotional brain

Memory- Fact memories are specific bits of information. Skill memories Learned motor behaviors Incorporated at unconscious level with repetition Programmed behaviors stored in appropriate area of brain stem 

Short-Term- Information that can be recalled immediately Contain small bits of information Primary memories

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Long-Term- Secondary memories fade and require effort to recall Tertiary memories are with you for life

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consolidation- conversion from short-term to long-term memory

Conscious State- Degree of wakefulness indicates level of ongoing CNS activity reticular activating system- Awakening from sleep, Extensive interconnections with sensory, motor, integrative nuclei, and pathways along brain stem Deep Sleep: Also called slow-wave or Non-REM (NREM) sleep, Entire body relaxes, Cerebral cortex activity minimal, Heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and energy utilization decline up to 30 percent REM Sleep: rapid eye movement, dreaming, inhibition of somatic motor neurons, deepest sleep, changes in BP and respiratory rate, body doesn’t move but eyes do Nociceptors: pain receptors Mechanoreceptors: mechanical stimuli such as touch, pressure, or vibration Serotonin: neurotransmitter in CNS, enhances inflammation and is released by activated mast cells and basophils. Mood balance.. deficit = depression

GABA: neurotransmitter of CNS whose effects are generally inhibitory

Chapter 16: The Autonomic Nervous System & Higher Order Functions Autonomic Nervous System- Operates without conscious instruction, ANS controls visceral effectors, Sympathetic- Increases alertness, metabolic rate, and muscular abilities Parasympathetic- Reduces metabolic rate and promotes digestion Acetylcholine- released at neuromuscular junction Norepinephrine- neurotransmitter released through secretory output Alpha: Releases intracellular calcium ions from reserves in endoplasmic reticulum Beta: Affect membranes in many organs (skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, and liver) Muscarinic: Response reflects activation or inactivation of specific enzymes, Can be excitatory or inhibitory Nicotinic: Exposure to ACh causes excitation of ganglionic neuron or muscle fiber Perganglionic- visercal motor neurons, Axons of preganglionic neurons, Leave CNS and synapse on ganglionic neurons Postganglionic- Axons of ganglionic neurons, comes from ganglion to the effector Chemoreceptors- Respond only to water-soluble and lipid-soluble substances dissolved in surrounding fluid

Chapter 17: Special Senses olfactory cortex- Involves detecting dissolved chemicals as they interact with odorant-binding proteins gustatory cortex- Provides information about the foods and liquids consumed Vision: Fovea: back of the eye, filled with cons Retina: Contains visual receptors and associated neurons Rods: night vision Cones: light/color vision Choroid: Vascular layer that separates fibrous and inner layers, delivers oxygen and nutrients to retina Lens: Filled with crystallins, which provide clarity and focusing power to lens Cornea: front fibrous layer covering Iris: Change diameter of pupil Aqueous humor: Fluid circulates within eye Vitreous body: Helps stabilize eye shape and supports retina Conjunctiva: Epithelium covering inner surfaces of eyelids Sclera: white of the eye

Hearing: Tympanic Membrane: Separates external ear from middle ear, Converts arriving sound waves into mechanical movement Ossicles: Convert pressure fluctuation in air into much greater pressure fluctuations in perilymph of cochlea Basilar Membrane: Separates cochlear duct from tympanic duct Cochlea: Receptors provide sense of hearing Tectorial membrane; acellular gels in the cochlea of the inner ear, located above the sulcus spiralis internus and the spiral organ of Corti and extends along the longitudinal length of the cochlea parallel to the BM. Oval window: on the medial wall of the tympanic cavity, leading into the vestibule, to which the base of the stapes is connected and through which the ossicles of the ear transmit the sound vibrations to the cochlea. Round window: one of the openings from the middle ear into the inner ear Semicircular canals: the tubular components of the membranous labyrinth of the internal ear: respond to rotational movement of the head Endolymph: fluid of the internal ear Perilymph: Equilibrium: saccule/utricle (Provide equilibrium sensations), cupula (contained in an ear duct), ampulla (Associated sensory receptors)...