French and italian neoclassicism PDF

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FRENCH & ITALIAN NEOCLASSICISM // TROUBADOUR // CLASSICISM Week 1

Art in Theory Reading o Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867) from Notebooks - Took up a Prix de Rome in 1806 and remained in Italy until 1824, returning to France at the time when his Raphaelesque Vow of Louis XIII was shown in the Salon. - For ten years he maintained an influential studio in Paris, but returned to Rome in 1835 as Director of the French Academy, a post he held for 6 years. - The goal is not to invent, but to continue – following the examples of the masters. - There is no longer any need to discover the conditions, the principles of the beautiful, the important part is applying them without letting the desire to invent cause us to lose sight of them. - “Beauty, pure and natural, has no need to surprise through novelty: it is enough that it be beauty. But man is in love with change, and change, in art, is very often the cause of decadence.” - Expression in painting can only be mastered through the initial mastery of drawing. “The extreme precision we need is to be arrived at only through the surest talent in drawing.” Ingres uses Raphael as an artist who exemplifies this. - Perfection of color is much less required, thus, great painters have not mastered coloring as colorists have, because it’s not as important as mastering form. - Ingres abhors the need to follow the trend of the century and the need for change – ancient art and the ways of the masters should be strictly imitated. - “Moreover, there are not two arts, there is but one: it is that which is founded upon the imitation of nature, of beauty – immutable, infallible, and eternal.” - There is nothing new left to discover after Phidias and Raphael, all that is left to do is to maintain the truth and to perpetuate the tradition of the beautiful. o Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) (1783-1842) from Salon of 1824 - “Stendhal” was a literary pseudonym of Marie-Henri Beyle, first used in 1817. Born in Grenoble, Beyle left for Paris at the age of 16 and subsequently worked for the Napoleonic regime in Italy and in Paris. - In 1817, he published a History of Painting in Italy in which he questioned the assumption that classical criteria were universally applicable, contrasting “le beau ideal antique” with “le beau ideal moderne.” - His Racine and Shakespeare (1823) was one of the first statements of literary Romanticism in France. He “argues that Romanticism is not just a modern movement, but represents a recurring phenomenon in the art of every period, namely that kind of art which reflects on its own time rather than on unchanging, eternal factors. That is, he identifies Romanticism with ‘the spirit of the age’ (or zeitgeist, itself a German Romantic concept).” o The Salon of 1824 marked the triumph of Romanticism in French art. o XIII 23 November 1824 – in Stendhal’s perspective, Ingres’ The Vow of Louis XIII is not impressive, it is extremely derivative of Old Italian Masters. Although the Madonna is beautiful, she is only superficially beautiful – she lacks any sense of divinity. Jesus, as well, is extremely well drawn, but is not obviously divine in nature. Stendhal claims that the paintings of their century lack passion and feeling. They may have mastered the mechanical arts, like lithography and diorama, but they all lack feeling. He finds it strange that Ingres lived in Florence and did not learn the unction that made the 15th century so great in comparison to the 19th. o **XV 11 December 1824 – Rome has just lost Canova. He believed that Canova invented a new type of ideal beauty, which was closer to their own way of thinking than that of the ancient Greeks. The Greeks respected physical force, while they sought feeling and intelligence. Canova imitated nature and he was even loathed by the French School because, “he had expression, and he had grace, both of which [were] somewhat lacking in the school of David.”

XVI 22 December 1824 – Stendhal views Horace Vernet highly in that he takes risks in such an over-cautious century. A critic, and great enemy of Romanticism, describes Vernet’s work as “Shakesperean,” contrasting them with the “Homeric” tradition of Raphael and David. Slowly the word “Romantic” would come to be synonymous with “bad.” He states that “the Romantic, in all the arts, is the man who represents people as they are today, and not as they were in those heroic times so distant from us, and which probably never existed.” Chu Reading and Lecture Notes o The Classical Paradigm - Artists like Joshua Reynolds in Britain and La Font de Saint-Yenne in France encouraged artists to look at art of the past – Charles Le Brun, Nicolas Poussin, Michelangelo, and Raphael (16th and 17th century artists). - As the 18th century progressed, artists increasingly went beyond 16th and 17th century painting to find the models for a “new art.” It was Classical sculpture rather than Renaissance or Baroque era painting that became the chief paradigm for the renewal of art. o Winckelmann and Reflections on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture - Winckelmann – German literary scholar (1717-1768); not only viewed the ancient Greeks as a model for improvement in painting and sculpture, but also as a society as a whole. He suggested that the Greeks’ sensible, natural lifestyle engendered healthy minds and high moral standards. - He noted that Michelangelo, Raphael, and Poussin had turned to Classical art for inspiration, and he advised the artists of his own time to do the same. - A true understanding of Classical art, would help them to imbue their figures with the “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur” that Winckelmann admired above all in Greek art. o Classical Art and Idealism - Classical art exemplified ideal beauty, or what the French called le beau idéal. The notion of ideal beauty rested on the belief that nature, no matter how pleasing it may appear, is always imperfect. - Revealing the ideal in nature was considered a difficult task, requiring a special insight, often equated with “genius,” as well as much practice and study. It also required that the artist capture the inner “idea,” the emotional and intellectual essence of the subject. - Idealism, then, was the search for the perfect form as the expression of the essence of a subject. o Contour - The 18th century search for the ideal was closely linked to a preoccupation with outline or contour. - The earliest form of Western art known at the time, Greek vases seemed to take the viewer back to art’s very origins. Because their painted decorations were based on strong contour lines, they confirmed the theory that the contour represented the earliest beginnings of art. o The Beginnings of Neoclassicism - Neoclassicism: as a style, qualities of Classical art – beauty, harmony, proportion, dignity, order, simplicity/restraint, decorum, grace/elegance, universal, and timeless. Establishment style or predominant style that emulated Classical art. - Neo = new, or anew (connoted that it was inspired by Antiquity, but not seen as equivalent at the time. - The term “Neoclassicism” was not coined until the 1880s and wasn’t used in the 18th century. Neoclassicism is a broad umbrella term that covers a wide variety of works whose content and form depended on artists’ individual temperaments and convictions as well as on their cultural and national backgrounds. o Art and Revolutionary Propaganda in France o

The American Revolution against British rule showed the French how citizens could fight for freedom and equality. - French Revolution (1789-1792) – On July 14, an angry mob stormed the Bastille fortress in Paris and freed the political prisoners inside. The revolution ended the old order in which kings had been sacrosanct. Now, power and wealth had to be earned rather than inherited. - French Republic (1792-1804) – this period was marked by the fall of the monarchy, several different forms of government, and lasted until the declaration of the First Empire (1804-1814) under Napoleon. - Jacobins = radical Republican party The Death of Marat (1793) // David - David was a member of the Jacobins and was commissioned to memorialize Marat, who died in service to the party. - He was particularly opposed to the French Royal Academy, which, like the nation itself, was ruled by a select few who guarded their own special interests. Replaced in 1795 by the French Institute (École des Beaux-Arts). - Jean-Paul Marat (1743-1793) – a Jacobin journalist murdered in his bathtub by Charlotte Corday, working for the Girondins. - David selected certain aspects to illustrate his perspective – a reminder that the viewer should simply view it as one person’s perspective. He chooses not to depict Corday and simplifies the tub to make Marat appear nobler. - Marat is depicted Christ-like, or as a martyr, to show that he sacrificed his life for a greater cause – the French Republic. Reference to Michelangelo’s Pietà, inviting the viewer to compare Marat’s death with that of Christ. - Knife on the floor hints at his death. By eliminating all action, all allegorical references, and nearly all allusions to the violence of his death, David creates a huge focus on the icon of the revolution. - Marat holding quill shows that he died whilst working, presents him as tirelessly supporting the cause. - References to Antiquity – white sheet is reminiscent of Classical art to give the illusion of timelessness. Also depicted in frieze-like composition (profile pose) – an example of simplicity and legibility. Exemplifies David’s interest in emulating Classical art. - Style – naturalism, observation of anatomy, depiction of light. This attention to detail convinces the viewer that this really happened. - David’s influences – Poussin (Lamentation over the Dead Christ) and Caravaggio (The Deposition of Christ). Poussin, seen as the French Raphael, lacked naturalism, and generalized forms to mimic that of Classical sculptures. Whereas Caravaggio’s style was highly naturalistic. The two were seen as opposites, but both influenced David. Creating a Revolutionary Iconography - Under the old regime, the king’s image was enhanced by the use of emblems, symbols representing abstract concepts related to power. These embodied virtues, such as charity, justice, strength, or beauty that rulers wished to attribute to themselves. - Once the old regime was gone, the republic needed a fresh set of images that would advance the notion of representational power rather than absolute. - The allegorical figure of Liberty was an important image in early revolutionary iconography. It drew on classical models. Generally took the form of a young woman, dressed in white, with a scepter in one hand a cap in the other. Scepter symbolized control a free man has over himself; the cap resembled the so-called Phrygian bonnet, worn in ancient Rome by emancipated slaves to mark their new status as free. The Arts Under Napoleon -

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In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte, a young general at the time, led an uprising (coup) that called for a new government, called the Consulate – stronger, more effective executive branch comprising three consuls, the first of whom held the most power. - Became First Consul in 1800 and Emperor in 1804. Sought to establish a French hegemony throughout the world. His hegemony came to an end in 1814, exiled to the Mediterranean island of Elba in 1815. Defeated at Waterloo in present-day Belgium and exiled again after less than 4 months = the Hundred Days. - Having risen from complete obscurity, Napoleon felt the need to bolster his persona and his regime through vast amounts of propaganda. Thus he turned to the arts, not because of a personal affinity, but because he realized their enormous promotional potential. Believed in the power of Salons. - Napoleon’s preference for ancient Roman art led to the so-called Empire Style, often seen as the final phase of Neoclassicism. Largely based off of Roman architecture and sculpture, but also had elements from Egyptian art (Egyptian expeditions fostered interest). The Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine (1805-1807) // David - David was appointed First Painter to the emperor immediately after Napoleon assumed the title. His main commission was to commemorate the crowing ceremony with a huge painting. - This painting took 3 years to complete, even with the help of his students. - Its size added to its voracity and credibility. It was David’s job to show people that Napoleon had the right to rule – Napoleon crowning his wife instead of the Pope (Pius VII), the amount of people that attended. - The composition is carefully orchestrated to reflect each person’s power and rank = political propaganda. For instance, Napoleon’s mother did not attend the ceremony, but her presence was necessary because the emperor had much to gain by emphasizing family unity. And Napoleon stands on a platform, above others, and especially above Pius VII and the archbishop of Paris. - Empire style clothing – Empress Josephine wearing a gold-embroidered white dress with an enormous red velvet train, studded with golden bees (Napoleon’s emblem) and lined with ermine fur. - David’s painting style – more elegant, decorative, theatrical to appeal to the masses. - In the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, not Reims. The School of David and Troubadour - Several students began to rebel against the artist’s strict Neoclassical training. The most vocal group of dissenters called themselves the “Primitives” or the “Barbus” (because they had beards; one of the first rebellious groups). - Instead of studying Classical Greek and Roman art and the art of the High Renaissance masters (Michelangelo, Titian, Raphael), they sought inspiration from “primitive” art of the pre-Classical, medieval, and early Renaissance painters. This was not a demeaning term, it simply claimed that the art of early Renaissance painters was naïve and awkward. - Not interested in epic moments of history, favored scenes from the private lives of wellknown figures from the past (antithesis of Classical art). Developed a polished, finely detailed style that is referred to as troubadour style, a form of genre painting (term actually used at the time). Troubadour = travelling court singer The Tournament (1812 S) // Revoil - Influenced by Quattrocento (15th century as a period of Italian art and architecture), early Renaissance paintings. Sometimes compared against paintings of Napoleon due to differences in style – smaller style and no focus on Classicism, but both shared a great -

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emphasis on costume, decorations, performance, play of light (David’s Coronation painting). Hall of the Thirteenth Century in the Museum of French Monuments (c. 1800) // Vauzelle - French Republic was hostile to Catholicism – linked to monarchy. Many wanted to destroy any remnants of their past monarchy. - Alexandre Lenoir – wanted to save monuments from destruction, such as Notre Dame. Concerned with preservation of patrimony, looked at situation with aesthetic point of view versus religious or political. Admired and appreciated art ranging all time periods. - The chronology of art and museums were new concepts. There was also a new relativity of values and appreciation that became increasingly apparent in the 19th century. The Sleep of Endymion (1791, 1793 S) // Girodet - Painted when he was studying in Rome, sent back to Paris for Salon. - Depicts a youth from Greek myth, who was put to eternal sleep by the mood goddess (Diana) so that she could love him forever. Disguised herself as a moon beam (lunar lighting). - Alternative representation of male body – there were two ideal modes in the Greek ideal of physical beauty – masculine, heroic, and austere vs. feminine, graceful, and sensuous. Different standards of beauty. Feminine traits were particularly pronounced in the adolescent youths who became lovers of gods and goddesses. - Elongation of body, very generalized/ not as anatomically specific, face seems like emulation of statues. - Focusing on the male body as an object of desire and beauty – very rare. Not doing anything, not depicted as a hero, etc. The Death of Hyacinth (1801 S) // Broc - Mythological painting – depicts the beautiful Hyacinth, the friend of the Greek God Apollo, who accidentally killed the boy as they were throwing disks. Explains how hyacinths came to be in nature – when his blood fell to the floor, hyacinths sprung up. - Les Barbus and Les Primitifs - Chaillot = western edge of Paris - Style – forms look flatter, much more generalized. Frieze-like composition comes from Broc’s admiration of Greek art, which was very stylized& portrayed profile and frontal. - Lighting is interesting – backlit, fronts of figures are in shadow, contours are highlighted, proportions are stretched out to appear more youthful. - The painting has a dreamlike quality that is quite different from the clarity and eloquence of David’s work. David’s saturated colors vs. Broc’s pastel colors. - Androgynous bodies of the two are curved and soft, very different from David’s Horatii brothers. Napoleon Bonaparte Visiting the Plague House at Jaffa (1804 S) // Gros - Commissioned by Napoleon, who was still First Consul, to commemorate his Egyptian campaign 5 years earlier. - Napoleon is depicted with a Christ-like quality – his French officers are covering their faces to avoid the plague, but Napoleon touches a sick man with his bare hand, showing that he is not fearful, but in control. Also hints at the idea that he is a healer, and given that power by God (divine right to rule). - Also suggesting that the French are bringing science and knowledge to them, that they can overcome the odds. - This painting depicts Jaffa in a decrepit manner/in need of leadership, ultimately making Napoleon look good and justifies his campaign.

“Orientalism” – represented the European’s view of the exotic; “orient” in the 19th century referred to North America, the Middle East, Greece, and Turkey. Mostly of the imagination and fabricated. - Another massive painting, scale of important history paintings. - Comparison to Death of Socrates – Socrates is very clearly the center of attention, whereas Napoleon is not as obvious (but still shown with power). - Attention to exotic architecture, atmosphere, warm color palette (associated with the Orient and the desert), whereas David’s Death of Socrates is more clear, crystalline, and crisp. Portrait of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne (1806 S) // Ingres - One of David’s most famous students, won the Prix de Rome, but couldn’t go until a few years later. - Over life-size painting, probably commissioned by legislative chamber. - Seated on a gilded throne, the curved back of which forms a halo around his head. - His pose is that of Jupiter, in Clasical images of the king of the gods enthroned. Holding the golden scepter of Charlemagne, with whom he liked to be compared. - Frontal view = position that has denoted authority for ages. - His strictly frontal pose gives the painting an iconic quality similar to that of van Eyck’s God the Father of the Ghent Altarpiece (“Gothic”). Also has the halo-like border over his head. - By referring to this work and to Classical statues of Jupiter, Ingres suggested that Napoleon was a godlike figure, omnipotent and endowed with divine wisdom. - Comparison to David’s Crossing the Alps at St. Bernard – contrast in color palettes (warm vs. cool), both elevated above the viewer, dynamism and movement vs. static and stable - Carpet depicts eagle = symbol of Jupiter Portrait of Napoleon I as Mars the Peacemaker (1806) // Canova - Neoclassical sculpture; marble. - Canova went to Rome for patronage, became even more well- known than David. - Because sculptures often took longer and were more expensive than paintings, sculptors desired stability and dislike changes in government. - Napoleon depicted as Mars the Peacemaker, not the warrior (no helmet, armor). This is important because Napoleon was seen as a man who would go to much extremes for his own desires – represented him in a positive guise. - Colossal sculpture; monumental; over life-size. Bolder representation, completely nude. This was a very powerful/aggressive presentation that Napole...