7. Italian Unification PDF

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Italian Unification (Paper 3) 7.1 The Unification of Italy - the Risorgimento Specimen: Examine the consequences of Austrian dominance in Italy between 1815 and 1849 May 2010: Analyse the political factors involved in the unification of Italy up to 1861. Nov 2010: Compare and contrast the roles of Cavour and Garibaldi in the unification of Italy between 1850 and 1871. May 2011: Compare and contrast the unification of Germany and Italy in the nineteenth century. Nov 2011: Assess the contribution to Italian unification of either Cavour or Garibaldi. May 2012: Assess the contribution made by other powers to the unification of Italy (1848–1871). Nov 2013: Why was the Italian nationalist movement so ineffective in the years 1815–1848? May 2014: Analyse the reasons for Piedmont–Sardinia’s growth in power between 1815 and 1861. Nov 2014: Discuss which Italian leader played the most important role in the unification of Italy. May 2015: Evaluate the reasons for the 1848 revolutions in Italy. May 2016: Examine the significance of Garibaldi’s leadership in the unification of Italy between 1848 and 1870. OSC: Compare and Contrast the unifications of Italy and Germany Context ● The Congress of Vienna concluded after Napoleonic wars 1815, w/ aim that Europe should return to peace and stability ○ A return to conservatism → old rulers restored on basis of principle of legitimacy ○ In Italy… this principle was applied to Piedmont, Tuscany, Modena, and the Papal States ● Austrian Chancellor, Prince Metternich = driving force behind quadruple alliance between Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Br ○ Aim = prevent/control french radicalism + prevent bonaparte dynasty from returning ○ Prevent and combat revolution anywhere in Europe ● W. exception of a few tiny principalities, Italy made up of 9 states/duchies ○ Lombardy + Venetia belonged to Austria ○ Duchies of Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca were ruled by Habsburgs ● Only the Papal states + Piedmont which had non-Austrian or native Italian rulers ● Conservative rulers restored by Vienna settlement → Liberals opposed them ● Liberals demanded constitutions which wd/ limit the power of the ruler ○ This idea in Italy went hand-in-hand w/ a desire for free/independent states, not influenced by foreign powers, ie. nationalism P1 - Long-Term Cause #1 Nationalism ● 19th century = era of nationalism ● Nationalism = belief that a group of people, w/ common sense of belonging to same national identity should also form a state (identity based on culture, religion, language, ethnicity, etc.) ● To draw a new state wd/ be a violation of Vienna ● Constitutionalist revolt in Naples 1820/21, crushed by Austrian troops ● New revolts in 1831 ● By this time… 5 of 6 rulers in Northern Italy (Piedmont = exception) had called on Austrian troops to help suppress revolts ● Early revolts caused by Carabonari (groups who used conspiracy to provoke uprisings) ○ However … no real plans for unification amongst Carabonari

P2 - Long-Term Cause #2 Mazzini’s Influence ● The promotion of the idea of unification was (to an extent) due to the work of Giuseppe Mazzini (man w/ Carabonari background) ● Founded ‘Young Italy’ movement 1931 ○ Many of his revolts failed in 1830s/40s… but nonetheless aroused enthusiasm amongst young ● Mazzini = ‘soul of unification’ ● He was able to establish a reputation amongst liberals in Europe ● Believed that Italians could lead their own national revival and rise against foreign masters ● Mazzini spoke to all Italians… not just the educated middle class ● He spoke for democracy, freedom, and viewed patriotism as a religion ● Methods = propaganda, insurrection → wanted to awake national ‘consciousness’’ P3 - Long-Term Cause #3 1848 Revolutions ● 1848 - year of revolution in Europe ○ (series of republican revolts against European monarchies, challenging the conservatism system established at Vienna in 1815, beginning in Sicily, spread to France, Germany, Italy, and Austria, all failed, led to disillusionment among liberals) ● Piedmont seized opportunity… declared war on disintegrating Austrian empire ○ … but when stability returned to Europe, Austria defeated Piedmont twice, at Custoza 1848 and Novara 1849 ● Even though Metternich, symbol of conservatism + maintenance of status quo → forced to ● ● ●

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resign… in many cases… existing power structure remained Mazzini now said: “The royal war is over, the war of the people begins” In Rome, a republic declared → Garibaldi responsible for its military defense Church land redistributed to the poor… but this policy soon brought down by France + Austria in June 1849 ○ A French garrison now stationed in Rome ^ Italian freedom had failed… but this failure only strengthened their cause

May 2015: Evaluate the reasons for the 1848 revolutions in Italy. Reasons were varied and included local factors (such as those in Sicily in January 1848), a dislike of foreign (Austrian) rule (for example in Milan and Venice in March 1848) and economic problems across Italy (poor harvests and taxes). Some consideration may also be given to the disenchantment in Rome with the actions of Pope Pius IX that led to the Roman rebellion of November 1848 and the flight of the Pope. Other reasons could be the ambition of Piedmont, (the role of Charles Albert leading his army against the Austrians at Custozza and Novara in 1848 and 1849) and the influence of liberal, nationalist intellectuals, for example Mazzini in Rome. P4 - The Importance of Piedmont and Cavour ● After 1948, return to old order in dutchies of Italy resulted in Foreign military occupation/ repression ● Exception = Piedmont… who retained territorial integrity + freedom from Austria ○ Ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II from 1849 ○ 1852, Camillo di Cavour became PM ● Cavour admired Br, + realized the importance of industrialism → began encouraging industrial ● ● ●

+ commercial development Laws which reduced the rights of clergy introduced in 1850, when archbishop ordered clergy to ignore these laws, he was imprisoned Econ reforms caused Piedmont to become the leading state in Italy ○ Trade trebled in value in 1850s, Most of Italy’s railway was inside Piedmont By late 50s, Piedmont had the most liberal constitution, most modern army + strongest econ

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But… it stood alone/not strong enough to be a driving force in unification process

Important to Understand how important other great powers in Italy were … w/out france and Prussia, it would have been very difficult for Piedmont to oppose Austrian rule P5 - Short Term Cause #1 Participation in the Crimean War/War of 1859 ● Piedmont joined Br + Fr in Crimean war in 1854 vs. Russia ○ Piedmonts participation (18,000 men) entitled Cavour to join Paris Peace conf. ● Italian question now placed firmly in the context of European diplomacy ● 1858 - Cavour & Napoleon III made an agreement at Plombiere to co-op to oust Austrians from Northern Italy ○ Result = military alliance January 1859 ● War began May 1859 → allies (Fr + Piedmont) victorious ● ●

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Napoleon soon realized that it would be wise to end Italian campaign … Prussia mobilizing in the Rhineland, so French troops needed to be moved there Fr signed armistice w/ Austria at Villafranca July 1859 w/ out presence of Piedmont ○ France gained Lombardy ○ Rulers of Tuscany + Modena (who had fled during war) wd/ be restored ○ Venitia still controlled by Austria ^ results unacceptable to Cavour … he wanted to continue war, but the King said no ○ Cavour resigned

P6 - Short Term Cause #2 Tuscany, Parma, and Modena join Piedmont after the War ● Encouraged by Cavour, provisional gov’s in Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, not prepared to accept return of their old rulers ○ Declared they wanted to be part of an Italian kingdom led by Victor Emmanuel ● After Napoleon III made it clear that he refused to use military power vs. dutchies, a plebiscite was organized ○ Result = majority wanted to a part of Piedmont ○ ^ First step towards unification complete … now Piedmont doubled in size & pop. P7 - Short Term Cause #3 Garibaldi’s Importance ● 1860 revolt in Sicily by republican Mazzini's broke out ○ Revolted vs. King Francis II ● However… the year before, republicans in Sicily refused to support monarchy in Piedmont in their war vs. Austria ○ Result = Cavour, who now had returned to power, refused to support the Sicilian revolt ● In may 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi, w/out support from gov of Piedmont, left Genoa w/ 1,000 volunteers, protected by the British navy + w/ support from sicily ○ Garibaldi’s troops = victorious vs. troops in Naples (Sicily was part of Naples) ○ If they had been successful in defeating troops of naples in Sicily… they could be defeated again & Naples could be conquered ■ Next step = conquer Papal states (this wd/ lead to intl. Intervention, esp. Fr) ● But to Piedmont… Garibaldi’s success = problematic ○ Cavour said: “If Garibaldi passes over to the mainland and seized the kingdom of Naples … as he has done w/ sicily and Palermo … king Victor Emmanuel loses more or less all his prestige” ● After Garibaldi passed over straits and occupied Naples, Cavour took action: ○ Cavour sent troops to the Papal states + informed European states that his aim was to restore order ● Naples fell October 26th → dramatic meeting took place at Treano ○ ○

Garibaldi forced to choose → hand over conquests to Victor Emmanuel or fight him Garibaldi accepted ultimatum

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After a new plebiscite → Kingdom of Naples + Papal territories of Umbria and Marches

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became parts of the new Kingdom of Italy, officially announced in March 1861 (These conquests = exception in the unification process … they were accomplished w/out foreign intervention)

P8 - The Austro-Prussian War 1866 ● Still two pieces missing in making a unified Italy → Venezia + Rome ● ●

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When Prussia + Austria-Hungary’s relation deteriorated due to disagreements over Schleswig-Holstein → opportunities opened for Italy June 1866, Prussia attacked Austria ○ Before doing so, Prussia secured Italian support ○ Agreed that none of the parties could conclude a separate peace w/ Austria (ie new Villafranca should not be replaced) Prussia defeated Austria at battle of Sadowa July 1866 → outcome = Italy gained Venetia

P9 - Papal Territories + The Franco-Prussian War 1870 ● Still… not all papal territories had been integrated into the Kingdom of Italy ○ (Only Umbria + Marches) ● From Italian POV… this was a problem because Pope was protected by French troops ● Garibaldi made two attempts to conquer territory w/out gov. Support … but was too weak ● In 1864, Italy made an agreement w/ France that she should remove her troops from the Papal territories if Italy guaranteed to protect Papal territories from external attacks ○ Thus 1866…. French troops began to withdraw ● 1870 Franco-Prussian war resulted in the defeat of France + unification of Germany ● Italy now sought support from Spain, Austria + Catholic states in Germany to annex Papal territories ○ Once they had support… Italian occupied Rome in Sep 1870 ○ Pope was offered the right to the Vatican + numerous other rights… but the pope Pius IX refused to recognize the Italian state ○ (problem only solved in 1929 when Mussolini concluded Lateran Treaty w/ papacy) ● Nonetheless… final step of unification had been completed due to favourable intl. Relations (ie. defeat of France)

Historiography on the Unification of Italy Italian Nationalist School ● Emphasize the importance of the Piedmont King ● A. Oriano: KIng Emmanuel = “The greatest and most glorious sovereign in the history of Christian Europe” Liberal School ● Emphasizes + defends actions of Cavour in light of his success ● Unification was part of a broader process in Europe at the time, where liberalism outmaneuvered the conservative restoration from the Vienna settlement ● Cavour’s importance is emphasized Left Wing Historians ● Less sympathetic to the unification ● Antonio Gramsci describes it as “Failed Revolution”, where right wing politicians eg: Cavour created a state riddle by class conflicts which would ultimately lead to rise of Facism Denis Mack Smith ● Non-Italian historian ● Less sympathetic to Cavour… sees him as cunning politician representing Piedmontese interests more than unified Italy ● Refutes ‘nationalist’ school + admiration for the King ● Smith is more sympathetic to Mazzini + sees him as man of integrity + honour

Was Italian Unification a result of Cavour’s Policies? P1 - Yes ● He became PM in 1852 → played an important role in modernizing the state, Trade trebled in ●

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the 1950s Failure in 1848 led Cavour to conclude that foreign help was necessary to exclude Austria from northern Italy (... but Cavour’s main aim was to strengthen Piedmont’s position in Northern Italy, not to unify Italy) The Crimean war: joining = a diplomatic move by Cavour which placed the Italian question firmly into the general context of European diplomacy. (he was allowed to participate in Paris Peace after Crimean War) Cavour played a very important role in the Plombieres agreement → Cavour + Fr agreed to oust Austria out of Northern Italy… led to a somewhat successful war Even though Cavour resigned after the armistice at Villafranca … Cavour still played an important role in taking advantage of the risings in the Duchies of the North and sent troops to restore order ○ The final result was an enlarged kingdom of Piedmont in 1861, which in turn led to complete unification Process of unification in Southern + Central italy was due to Garibaldi ○ By entering Papal states + preventing Garibaldi from reaching Rome, Cavour was able to control the situation + avoid foreign intervention Cavour had no master plan for unification, but he was a great opportunist ○ Liberal historians emphasize his importance + describe him as the ‘brain’ of unification

P2 - Other Important Factors ● Nationalism/Liberalism → Groups like Carbonari viewed revolts as best means to provoke a general rebellion vs. absolutism in the 1820s and 1930s. This kind of liberal/radicalism was opposed especially by Austrians and Metternich who controlled much of Northern Italy ●

Mazzini → Young Italy group, was the ‘soul’ behind unification.

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Victor Emmanuel → the importance of the King is often underestimated. He had the main role in the decision to join the French in the Crimean war + was very important in the process which led to the Plombieres agreement.

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Garibaldi → lead the unification of Italy in the South + Center of Italy

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Rivalry between great powers → French support vs. Austria after Crimea helped Italy, France defeated Austria in 1859, this also helped Italy, Prussia defeated Austria as well, which led to Italy gaining Venetia, and then when Prussia defeated France, the Papal states were incorporated into Italy ○ The support of the great powers = key factor in unification...