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FOUNDATION COURSE IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY FST-1 (2019-20) Solved Assignment by ignouews.com

The completed assignment should be sent to the Coordinator at the Study Centre allotted to you. Last date for submission of assignment: For June Exam 31st March 2020 (For July 2019 Session) For December Exam 30th September 2020 (For January 2020 Session) Good Luck!

Note: - These answers should just be treated as reference, not the final answer to be written in assignments. Just do not directly copy it in your assignments Visit https://ignounews.com for more assignments and alerts. Click on the bell icon on your right side to subscribe and get latest assignments update in notifications. Foundation Course in Science & Technology ASSIGNMENT (Tutor Marked Assignment) Course Code: FST-1 Assignment Code: FST-1/TMA/2019 Max. Marks: 100 1. Discuss social organisation; and improvements in agriculture, crafts and trade during the ‘Gupta Period ‘. 10 Ans:- Social Organisation during Gupta Period In the Gupta empire, the main mode of production was agriculture. The Gupta kings continued the land acquisition started by the Mauryans. Samudragupta conquered a number of forest kingdoms in the valleys of the Ganges, Narmada and the Mahanadi. The pattern of land settlement in this period was however very different from different from that of the Maurayns. State control and ownership of the cleared land was greatly reduced and land passed into private ownership. New laws were enacted to allow individuals to administer land and collect taxes, irrespective of whether they tilled the land or not. Most of the Gupta kings irrespective of their individual religious faith, were secular as far as the state was concerned. Buddhism Jainism and traditional Hindu institutions were all supported by the state through grants and patronage. Lineage which had determined one's position in society gave way to a certain extent to one's property status. Thus Brahmins lost their pre-eminence. Importance if agricultural and craft production meant some improvement in the condition of the Sudras. In general, what one did

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in society what one did in society became important. Even Brahmins were obliged to take up occupation other than performance of religious rites. This relaxation of rigid state control of the previous era had a liberating influence initially, as it encouraged individual initiative. It heralded a certain decline in the hold of the Brahmins ans that of the rigid 'varna' system over agricultural society. Improvements in Agriculture during Gupta Period Pepper and spices were grown for sport as well as domestic consumption. A wide variety of crops like rice wheat barley sesame pulses beans and lentils vegetables such as cucumbers onions pumpkin garlic and beetel were grown. New fruits like pears and peaches were introduced for the first time. All this did not take place as a random or as a matter of chance. There were proper manuals which gave information on the type and quality of soil required for each plant, various plant diseases, the distances between plants as well as sowing techniques (e.g. working of the soil before sowing). These manuals also described techniques for processing grain vegetables and fruits. As a wide variety of soil types had to cultivated, new varieties of agricultural implements also appeared. Weights and designs of ploughshares for different types of soil were fixed and the use of iron for making agricultural implements became widespread. Improvements in Crafts during Gupta Period Rapid strides were made during this era in metallurgical and weaving crafts. Rust proof iron and copper alloys were found and worked into intricate articles for civilian as well military purposes. The quality of the articles was so good that they were widely exported, even as far as Africa. In the design of these articles, there was to an extent Greco-Roman and Central Asian influence. However on the whole they had a local character. In weaving, techniques were for the making of cotton and silk materials. Manufacture of dyes and their widespread use in coloring textiles came into practice. Indian textile materials especially from Varanasi and Bengal became famous for their light weight and fine texture. The textiles became popular in the west and and became an important commodity for export and trade. Guilds or 'shernis' of artisans in this new situation of reduced state intervention became powerful and important.They enjoyed a great deal of intervention and drew up contracts among indviduals, and even entered into agreements with state authorities. The 'shernis' borrowed capital from individuals and paid them back with interest. This gave a tremendous to improve the crafts. Improvements in Trade during Gupta Period The importance of direct producers became greater as internal and external trade reached unprecedented volume and proportions. Opening up previous inaccessible and uninhabited regions, organisations of better transport, communication and trade routes helped growth of trade. The existence of a huge market, spread over a vast empire, gave rise to extensive circulation of money through a flouring trade. For merchants just as for artisans there existed association which were also known as shernis. The main trade route were based around the rivers Ganges and Indus.The state still supervised the influx and sale of commodities. Internal trade was augmented by rapid development of foreign trade, actively encouraged through the foreign diplomatic contacts

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established by the Kushanas, the Satavahanas and the Guptas. Improvement in navigation by the Indians, especially by the Indians, especially using the knowledge of monsoons,and a new design of seaworthy ships played an important role in this. The Indians traded with Arabs, the Mediterranean countries, especially Rome, Africa, south-east Asian countries such as Java, Sumatra and Sri Lanka. The existence of associations too helped the growth of trade.

2. With the help of suitable examples describe the Method of Science.

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Ans:- There are various physical and mental operations that make up the method of science Observations Observations are our everyday experiences arising from what we see, hear, touch, hear, taste and smell, form a part of common knowledge. For example, we observe that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west; a ball when thrown up, comes down. A farmer usually separates the good seeds from the bad ones by putting all of them in water.This is based on the observation that the good seeds sink and the bad ones float. Similarly, you can know whether an egg is rotten or good by putting it in a bowl of water. A rotten egg will always float. Artists are also very keen observers of the world around. Their creative art is an expression of these observations, transformed in the light of their own experiences and feelings. These, however, cannot be called scientific observations. In science, we go beyond just the common observation and experience and try to understand how a phenomenon occurs and why it occurs. Therefore, a scientist has to be clear about 'what' to observe and how to observe it. Further the observations made by scientists have to be correct, and independent of their sentiments and wishes. In science, subjective response must be subordinated to fact. It is in these respects that a scientist differs from an artist or a lay person. Scientific observations may be about natural events. For example rainfall may be measured for each month for many years, to determine its pattern in a given place. Observations could be about processes created by man. For example in order to increase the efficiency of existing machines, or to develop new machines, observations would have to be made about their design and working. Similarly, new materials like synthetic fibres, or rubber would have to be observed for their wear and tear, or any desired property like fire resistance etc. Observations are also necessary about social phenomena. In order to analyse the socio-economic status of people in a given area or society, observations have to be made regarding the land holdings, incomes educational level, standard of living etc. All these observations are carried out systematically, through carefully designed experiments or surveys, in order to explain natural or social phenomena. Hypothesis A hypothesis is a statement, put forward on the basis of reasoning, about the things that are being studied. It is an attempt to answer the questions that are posed. A hypothesis is formulated by taking into account all the observations that are known about the phenomenon under investigation. It tries to explain the known or predict the unknown but possible features of the phenomenon. We may describe the hypothesis as an inspired guests, based on reason and experience. We may use inductive and deductive logic to frame a hypothesis. Inductive Logic

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If we have direct evidence about only a part of the phenomenon, or some objects or situations and if on that basis we infer about the properties, behavior and other features of the whole phenomenon, or the entire group of objects and situations then we are using inductive logic. For example, if we know that the population of a country has doubled in a given period of time, we may use induction to hypothesis that it will double in a given period of time. Again if we study about the shadows of simple objects like triangles, rectangles and circles cast on a wall due to light form a small bulb, we might conclude that light travels in a straight line. The conclusion is a big jump in thinking and it is a sweeping general based on induction. Inductive logic can mislead also: for example to infer that all roses are red, if you see only red roses in a garden is illogical. Deductive logic Deductive logic maybe considered as the opposite of induction. Here the reasoning is more direct. If we know the statement about the whole class of objects, phenomena or situations then we can logically deduce the same statement about one particular object, phenomenon or situation belonging to that class. Examples of deduction are: roses can be of any color, hence some roses can be red. All birds have wings; therefore; a sparrow which is a bird will have wings. Deductive logic is extensively useful in chemistry. For example a group of chemical salts exhibit some properties or behavior we can safely say that a group of salts belonging to this group will exhibit the same behavior. You could say that deduction may also mislead, because in examples how do we know that a sparrow is a bird or a salt belongs to a group of salts. These facts would have to be established before such deductions can be accepted. Experiments Experiment is an essential feature of modern science. Experiments are artificially creates or contrived situations designed to make certain observations under strictly controlled conditions. The objective sometimes is to mimic nature. This allows the complexity of natural phenomena to be simplified step by step for study. For example, many of us might have used a bicycle tube. By pressing the piston the volume decreases, thereby increasing the pressure and forcing the air into the Tyre. Similarly if we fill a balloon partially with air and leave it in sunlight, the inside becomes warm and expands, thus inflating the balloon. These instances show that the volume of a gas depends upon its both pressure and temperature. If now we want to determine exactly how much change in volume is with a certain rise or fall in pressure or temperature, we will have to conduct an experiment in two steps. In the first step we can keep the temperature constant and observe the changes in volume with pressure. In the second step we will have to keep the gas at constant pressure and record the change in its volume with changing temperature. These experiments were carried out by Robert Boyle and J.AC. Charles. They derived precise mathematical relationships for the change of volume with pressure and temperature, respectively. These experiments are known after them called Boyle's law and Charles' law. The objective of an experiment may be to observe formula more minutely by the use of sensitive instruments. For example in order to study minute details of cell structure, biologists now use the electron microscope. Sometimes experiments are carried out with a sinister purpose.For example, atom bombs dropped on two cities of Japan in 1945 not only to cause destruction but also study how the buildings collapsed, the extent to which the fires raged, and how radiations killed or injured people.

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3. Describe characteristics of planets of solar system.

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Ans:- Mercury Mercury is the closest planet to the sun. It rotates slowly — about twice for every three orbits it completes. Its cratered surface can experience temperatures upwards of 800 degrees Fahrenheit (426.7 degrees Celsius) because of its proximity to the sun. However, temperatures on the side facing away from the sun are cold — about -279 F (-173 C). Slightly larger than Earth's moon, it is the smallest planet in the solar system. It has no moons, no rings, and an atmosphere so thin that scientists classify it as an exosphere. Venus The second planet from the sun, Venus is slightly smaller than Earth. Because of its relative proximity to Earth, it is the largest planet seen in the night sky. The cratered surface is hot with surface temperatures around 900 F (482 C), the product of a runaway greenhouse effect. Although the atmosphere is nowhere near as thick as that of any outer planet, it's the thickest of the terrestrial planets, and it consists mostly of sulfuric acid and carbon dioxide. The density of its atmosphere makes the air pressure at the surface 90 times that of Earth's. The heat and pressure make the planet decidedly inhospitable to life. The Earth Earth, the third planet from the sun and the largest terrestrial planet, is the only planet known to host living beings and the only one known to have liquid water on its surface. The atmosphere, made of mostly nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide, is crucial to Earth's ability to support life. Although the surface of the earth is mostly water, the planet also has large landmasses which harbor a stunning variety of ecosystems. Mars Stargazers from antiquity have called Mars, the fourth planet from the sun, Mars, the Red Planet. The red color of the surface comes from iron oxide or rust in the soil. The topography is characterized by large volcanoes and deep valleys, and Mars experiences frequent planetwide wind storms. Some of the surface features of Mars, such as dry river beds, hint to the possibility that water previously existed on the planet and may still flow under the surface. The carbon dioxide atmosphere is very thin on Mars, with only 1/100th the atmospheric pressure of Earth. The planet is colder than Earth, with surface temperatures ranging from 171 to 32 F (-113 to 0 C). Jupiter Further from the sun, past a ring of asteroids, lies the largest planet in our solar system — Jupiter — the first of the gas giant planets. Its characteristic colored cloud patterns are caused by enormous, swirling storms in its atmosphere, which consists of primarily of hydrogen, helium, methane ammonia and water ice. The largest and most distinctive of the storms, the Great Red Spot, is larger than Earth. Jupiter has 63 moons and a faint ring system. Saturn Saturn, the sixth planet from the sun, is also a gas giant, and it's most impressive feature as seen from afar is an extensive and complex ring system. The rings orbit the planet in a thin band about a mile thick. The radius of Saturn is about 9.5 times that of Earth, and instead of

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one paltry moon, it boasts 62. The interior of Saturn, like Jupiter, is made of mostly hydrogen and helium. Nearing the core, the intense pressure turns the gases into liquids and ultimately into a metallic form that conducts electricity. Uranus While most planets spin on their axis with a slight tilt, the ice giant Uranus spins on an axis parallel to its orbit. With a diameter of 31,518 miles (50,723 kilometers), this cold planet is four times the size of Earth and is made of a large atmosphere of methane with a dense core of frozen methane. Uranus has a faint ring system and 27 moons in its orbit. Neptune The blue planet Neptune is the farthest one from the sun and, like Uranus, is a very cold place. Its surface temperature is a chilly -353 F (-214 C). Because of its distance from the sun and its large orbit, one year on Neptune is 165 Earth years. The atmosphere is mostly methane, which gives the planet its blue color. The cold interior of the planet is mainly methane ice. Like all the outer planets, Neptune, like Uranus, has a diameter roughly four times that of Earth. Thirteen moons and a faint ring system orbit the planet.

4. Write an account on evidences that support human evolution.

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Ans:- The evidence on which scientific accounts of human evolution are based comes from many fields of natural science. The main source of knowledge about the evolutionary process has traditionally been the fossil record, but since the development of genetics beginning in the 1970s, DNA analysis has come to occupy a place of comparable importance. The studies of ontogeny, phylogeny and especially evolutionary developmental biology of both vertebrates and invertebrates offer considerable insight into the evolution of all life, including how humans evolved Genetics Human evolutionary genetics studies how one human genome differs from the other, the evolutionary past that gave rise to it, and its current effects. Our genes offer evidence of how closely we are related to one another – and of our species’ connection with all other organisms. Differences between genomes have anthropological, medical and forensic implications and applications. Genetic data can provide important insight into human evolution. Dating The layers that contain fossils and archeological clues can be dated by more than a dozen techniques that use the basic principles of physics, chemistry, and Earth sciences. Some techniques can even estimate the age of the ancient teeth and bones directly. Advances in dating have made human evolution very exciting! Human Fossils Thousands of human fossils enable researchers and students to study the changes that occurred in brain and body size, locomotion, diet, and other aspects regarding the way of life of early human species over the past 6 million years. From skeletons to teeth, early human fossils have been found of more than 6,000 individuals. From them, we can understand things like:

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how well adapted an early human species was for walking upright

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how well adapted an early human species was for living in hot, tropical habitats or cold, temperate environments

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the difference between male and female body size, which correlates to aspects of social behavior

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how quickly or slowly children of early human species grew up.

Behavioral Evidence Explore the evidence of early human behavior—from ancient footprints to stone tools and the earliest symbols and art – along with similarities and differences in the behavior of other primate species. 1)Primate Behavior Humans are part of the biological group known as primates. We sure are an unusual species of primate, though! 2)Footprints Footprints are a kind of evidence of behavior often called a 'trace fossil' - geological evidence of biological activity. This is in contrast to 'body fossils', fossilized remains from organisms' bodies. Scientists can learn a lot from sites where human footprints have been found, including: 

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