Fundamentals of Air Pollution Fourth Edition PDF

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Fundamentals of Air Pollution FOURTH EDITION Authors of Third Edition RICHARD W. BOUBEL Department of Mechanical Engineering Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon DONALD L. FOX Department of Environmental Science School of Public Health University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina D...

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Fundamentals of Air Pollution FOURTH EDITION

Authors of Third Edition

RICHARD W. BOUBEL Department of Mechanical Engineering Oregon State University Corvallis, Oregon

DONALD L. FOX Department of Environmental Science School of Public Health University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina

D. BRUCE TURNER Trinity Consultants, Inc. Chapel Hill, North Carolina

ARTHUR C. STERN (14 March 1909–17 April 1992)

Fundamentals of Air Pollution FOURTH EDITION DANIEL A. VALLERO Civil and Environmental Engineering Department Pratt School of Engineering Duke University Durham, North Carolina

AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA 84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK  This book is printed on acid-free paper. First Edition 1973 Second Edition 1984 Third Edition 1994 Fourth Edition 2008 Copyright © 2008, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (44) 1865 843830, fax: (44) 1865 853333; e-mail: [email protected]. You may also complete your request online via the Elsevier homepage (http://elsevier.com), by selecting “Support & Contact” then “Copyright and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.” Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Vallero, Daniel A. Fundamentals of air pollution / Daniel A. Vallero — 4th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-12-373615-4 (alk. paper) 1. Air—Pollution. I. Title. TD883.V25 2007 628.53—dc22 2007028062 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-12-373615-4 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at www.books.elsevier.com Typeset by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India www.charontec.com Printed and bound in the USA 07

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Dedicated to the four authors of the previous edition. I am standing on the shoulders of giants.

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Contents

Preface to the Third Edition Preface to the Fourth Edition

xvii xxi

Part I Air Pollution Essentials 1

The Changing Face of Air Pollution I. Defining Air Pollution II. The Emergence of Air Pollution Science, Engineering, and Technology III. Air Pollution Before the Industrial Revolution IV. Air Pollution and the Industrial Revolution V. Recent Air Pollution VI. The 1980s VII. Recent History VIII. The Future Further Reading Suggested Reading Questions

vii

3 7 37 40 42 47 48 49 49 51 51

viii

2

Contents

The Earth’s Atmosphere I. The Atmosphere II. Baseline Conditions: Unpolluted Air III. What is Air Pollution? IV. Particulate Matter V. Concepts References Suggested Reading Questions

3

52 53 58 59 71 76 76 76

Scales of the Air Pollution Problem I. Local II. Urban III. Regional IV. Continental V. Global Suggested Reading Questions

77 78 79 80 85 86 87

Part II The Physics and Chemistry of Air Pollution 4

Air Pollution Physics I. Mechanics of Air Pollution II. Fluid Properties Questions

5

The Physics of the Atmosphere I. Energy II. Motion III. Energy-Motion Relationships IV. Local Wind Systems V. General Circulation References Suggested Reading Questions

6

93 95 122

123 131 137 141 148 152 152 153

Air Pollution Systems and Processes I. Chemical Processes in Air Pollution

154

Contents

II. Air Pollution Chemodynamics References Suggested Reading Questions

ix 160 197 197 198

Characterizing Air Pollution

7

I. II. III. IV.

Relationship Between Physics and Chemistry Basic Chemical Concepts Expressions of Chemical Characteristics Electromagnetic Radiation, Electron Density, Orbitals, and Valence V. Organic Chemistry VI. Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry VII. Heterogeneous Reactions VIII. Scavenging and Removal from the Atmosphere References Suggested Reading Questions

199 200 207 210 238 248 259 259 260 261 261

Air Quality

8

I. Averaging Time II. Cycles III. Primary and Secondary Pollutants IV. Measurement Systems V. Air Quality Levels References Suggested Reading Questions

267 270 273 275 277 295 295 295

9 The Philosophy of Air Pollution Control I. Strategy and Tactics: The Air Pollution System II. Episode Control III. Air Quality Management Control Strategy IV. Alternative Control Strategies V. Economic Considerations References Suggested Reading Questions

296 301 306 309 310 311 311 311

10 Sources of Air Pollution I. General II. Combustion III. Stationary Sources

313 319 325

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Contents

IV. V. VI. VII.

Mobile Sources Air Toxics Sources Emission Inventory An International Perspective: Differences in Time and Space VIII. ODORS: More than just a Nuisance References Suggested Reading Questions

336 337 343 346 351 353 353 354

Part III Risks from Air Pollution 11 Effects on Health and Human Welfare I. Air–Water–Soil Interactions II. Total Body Burden III. The Human Respiratory System IV. Impact of Air Pollution on Humans V. Impact of Odor on Humans References Suggested Reading Questions

359 365 378 381 394 395 395 396

12 Effects on Vegetation and Animals I. Injury versus Damage II. Effects on Vegetation and Crops III. Effects on Forests IV. Effects on Animals References Suggested Reading Questions

397 399 403 408 411 412 412

13 Effects on Materials and Structures I. Effects on Metals II. Effects on Stone III. Effects on Fabrics and Dyes IV. Effects on Leather, Paper, Paint, and Glass V. Effects on Rubber References Suggested Reading Questions

413 416 417 419 420 421 422 422

Contents

xi

14 Effects on the Atmosphere, Soil, and Water Bodies I. The Physics of Visibility II. Formation of Atmospheric Haze III. Effects of Atmospheric Haze IV. Visibility V. Acidic Deposition VI. Effects of Acidic Deposition References Suggested Reading Questions

423 430 433 434 435 438 439 440 441

15 Long-Term Effects on the Planet I. Global Climate Change II. Ozone Holes References Suggested Reading Questions

442 451 453 454 454

Part IV The Measurement and Monitoring of Air Pollution 16 Ambient Air Sampling I. Elements of a Sampling System II. Sampling Systems for Gaseous Pollutants III. Sampling Systems for Particulate Pollutants IV. Passive Sampling Systems V. Sampler Siting Requirements VI. Sampling for Air Toxics References Suggested Reading Questions

457 459 463 466 468 469 470 470 470

17 Ambient Air Pollutants: Analysis and Measurement I. Analysis and Measurement of Gaseous Pollutants II. Analysis and Measurement of Particulate Pollutants III. Analysis and Measurement of Odors IV. Analysis and Measurement of Visibility V. Analysis and Measurement of Acidic Deposition References Suggested Reading Questions

472 487 490 492 496 497 498 498

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18 Air Pollution Monitoring and Surveillance I. Stationary Monitoring Networks II. Mobile Monitoring and Surveillance III. Remote Sensing IV. Personal Monitoring V. Quality Assurance VI. Data Analysis and Display References Suggested Reading Questions

500 503 505 506 508 510 513 513 513

19 Air Pathways from Hazardous Waste Sites I. Introduction II. Multimedia Transport III. Contaminant Fate Analysis IV. Modeling V. Assessment of a Hazardous Waste Site References Suggested Reading Questions

515 516 516 524 525 533 533 533

Part V Air Pollution Modeling 20 The Meteorological Bases of Atmospheric Pollution I. Ventilation II. Stagnation III. Meteorological Conditions during Historic Pollution Episodes IV. Effects of Pollution on the Atmosphere V. Removal Mechanisms References Suggested Reading Questions

537 539 540 546 547 550 551 551

21 Transport and Dispersion of Air Pollutants I. II. III. IV.

Wind Velocity Turbulence Estimating Concentrations from Point Sources Dispersion Instrumentation

552 554 557 566

Contents

V. Atmospheric Tracers VI. Concentration Variation with Averaging Time References Suggested Reading Questions

xiii 571 576 578 579 579

22 Air Pollution Modeling and Prediction I. Plume Rise II. Modeling Techniques III. Modeling Nonreactive Pollutants IV. Modeling Pollutant Transformations V. Modeling Air Pollutants VI. Model Performance, Accuracy, and Utilization References Suggested Reading Questions

582 585 587 590 593 627 633 636 637

23 Air Pollution Climatology I. Sources of Data II. Representativeness III. Frequency of Atmospheric Stagnations IV. Ventilation Climatology V. Wind and Pollution Roses References Suggested Reading Questions

638 641 646 647 650 654 655 655

Part VI The Regulatory Control of Air Pollution 24 Air Quality Criteria and Standards I. Air Quality Criteria II. Conversion of Effects Data and Criteria to Standards III. Conversion of Physical Data and Criteria to Standards IV. Conversion of Biological Data and Criteria to Standards V. Air Quality Standards Suggested Reading Questions

659 659 669 671 672 677 678

25 Indoor Air Quality I. Changing Times II. Factors Influencing Indoor Air Quality

679 680

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III. Indoor Air Pollutants IV. Effects of Indoor Air Pollutants V. Control of Indoor Air Pollutants References Suggested Reading Questions

682 685 687 692 692 692

26 Regulating Air Pollution I. Introduction II. Titles References Suggested Reading Questions

696 697 706 706 706

27 Emission Standards I. Subjective Standards II. Objective Standards III. Types of Emission Standards IV. Variant Forms of Emission Standards V. Means for Implementing Emission Standards References Suggested Reading Questions

707 709 713 713 715 721 721 722

28 The Elements of Regulatory Control I. Control of New Stationary Sources II. Control of Existing Stationary Sources III. Control of Mobile Sources IV. Air Quality Control Regions V. Tall Stacks and Intermittent and Supplementary Control Systems References Suggested Reading Questions

724 725 726 727 728 729 729 729

29 Organization for Air Pollution Control I. Functions II. Organization III. Finance IV. Advisory Groups Suggested Readings Questions

730 733 736 737 738 739

Contents

xv

Part VII Preventing and Controlling Air Pollution 30 Preventing Air Pollution I. Introduction II. Sustainability III. Green Engineering and Sustainability IV. Life Cycle Analysis V. Pollution Prevention VI. Motivations for Practicing Green Engineering VII. Future People References Suggested Reading Questions

743 743 744 753 756 761 767 770 772 772

31 Engineering Control Concepts I. Introduction II. Process Change III. Fuel Change IV. Pollution Removal V. Disposal of Pollutants References Suggested Reading Questions

774 776 777 778 780 784 784 784

32 Control Devices, Technologies, and Systems I. Introduction II. Removal of Dry PM III. Removal of Liquid Droplets and Mists IV. Removal of Gaseous Pollutants V. Removal of Odors References Suggested Reading Questions

786 794 807 810 821 822 823 823

33 Control of Hazardous Air Pollutants I. II. III. IV. V.

Air Quality and Hazardous Wastes Pre-control Considerations Contaminant Treatment and Control Approaches Thermal Treatment Processes Thermal Destruction Systems

825 830 832 835 839

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VI. Destruction Removal VII. Other Thermal Processes VIII. Indirect Air Impacts References Suggested Reading Questions

844 845 848 849 850 850

34 Control of Stationary Sources I. Introduction II. Energy, Power, and Incineration III. Chemical and Metallurgical Industries IV. Agriculture and Forest Products Industries V. Other Industrial Processes References Suggested Reading Questions

852 853 859 872 878 883 884 885

35 Control of Mobile Sources I. Introduction II. Gasoline-Powered Vehicles III. Diesel-Powered Vehicles IV. Gas Turbines and Jet Engines V. Alternatives to Existing Mobile Sources References Suggested Reading Questions

886 886 889 889 891 893 893 894

36 Source Sampling and Monitoring I. Introduction II. Source Sampling III. Statistics of Sampling IV. The Source Test V. Source Monitoring References Suggested Reading Questions

895 895 897 899 910 915 915 915

37 The Future of Air Pollution I. The Good News II. Stubborn Problems and Innovative Solutions Index

917 917 919

Preface to the Third Edition

The authors of this book include a chemist (Donald L. Fox), a meteorologist (D. Bruce Turner), and a mechanical engineer (Richard W. Boubel). This 1:1:1 ratio has some relevance in that it approximates the ratio of those professionally involved in the field of air pollution. In the environmental protection and management field, the experience of the recent past has been that physicists and electrical engineers have been most attracted to the radiation, nuclear, and noise areas; biologists and civil engineers to the aquatic and solid waste areas; chemists, meteorologists, and chemical and mechanical engineers to the area of air pollution and its control. These remarks are not intended to exclude all others from the party (or from this course). The control of air pollution requires the combined efforts of all the professions mentioned, in addition to the input of physicians, lawyers, and social scientists. However, the professional mix of the authors, and their expectation of a not-too-dissimilar mix of students using this book, forewarns the tenor of its contents and presentation. Although this book consists of six parts and three authors, it is not to be considered six short books put together back-to-back to make one large one. By and large, the several parts are the work of more than one author. Obviously, the meteorologist member of the author team is principally responsible for the part of the book concerned with the meteorology of air pollution, the chemist author for the chapters on chemistry, and the engineer author for those on engineering. However, as you will see, no chapters are signed, and all authors xvii

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Preface to the Third Edition

accept responsibility for the strengths and weaknesses of the chapters and for the book as a whole. In the 20 years since publication of the first edition of Fundamentals of Air Pollution (1973), and the 9 years since the second edition (1984), the fundamentals have not changed. The basic physics, chemistry, and engineering are still the same, but there is now a greater in-depth understanding of their application to air pollution. This edition has been edited, revised, and updated to include the new technology available to air pollution practitioners. Its contents are also influenced to a great extent by the passage of the US Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA90). These amendments have changed the health and risk-based regulations of the US Clean Air Act to technology-driven regulations with extensive penalty provisions for noncompliance. We have added more detailed discussion of areas that have been under intensive study during the past decade. There has been a similar need to add discussion of CAAA90 and its regulatory concepts, such as control of air toxics, indoor air pollution, pollution prevention, and trading and banking of emission rights. Ten more years of new data on air quality have required the updating of the tables and figures presenting these data. We have expanded some subject areas, which previously were of concern to only a few scientists, but which have been popularized by the media to the point where they are common discussion subjects. These include “Global Warming,” “The Ozone Hole,” “Energy Conservation,” “Renewable Resources,” and “Quality of Life.” With each passing decade, more and more pollution sources of earlier decades become obsolete and are replaced by processes and equipment that produce less pollution. At the same time, population and the demand for products and services increase. Students must keep these concepts in mind as they study from this text, knowing that the world in which they will practice their profession will be different from the world today. The viewpoint of this book is first that most of the students who elect to receive some training in air pollution will have previously taken courses in chemistry at the high school or university level, and that those few who have not would be well advised to defer the study of air pollution until they catch up on their chemistry. The second point of view is that the engineering design of control systems for stationary and mobile sources requires a command of the principles of chemical and mechanical engineering beyond that which can be included in a one-volume textbook on air pollution. Before venturing into the field of engineering control of air pollution, a student should, as a minimum, master courses in internal combustion engines, power plant engineering, the unit processes of chemical engineering, engineering thermodynamics, and kinetics. However, this does not have to be accomplished before taking a course based on this book but can well be done simultaneously with or after doing so. The third point of view is that no one, regardless of their professional background, should be in the field of air pollution control unless they sufficiently

Preface to the Third Edition

xix

understand the behavior of the atmosphere, which is the feature that differentiates air pollution from the other aspects of environmental protection and management. This requires a knowledge of some basic atmospheric chemistry in addition to some rather specialized air pollution meteorology. The viewpoint presented in the textbook is that very few students using it will have previously studied basic meteorology. It is hoped that exposure to air pollution meteorology at this stage will excite a handful of students to delve deeper into the subject. Therefore, a relatively large proportion of this book has been devoted to meteorology because of its projected importance to the student. The authors have tried to maintain a universal point of view so that the material presented would be equally applicable in all the countries of the world. Although a deliberate attempt has been made to keep American provincialism out of the book, it has inevitably crept in through the exclusive use of English language references and suggested reading lists, and the preponderant use of American data for the examples, tables, and figures. The saving grace in this respect is that the principles of chemistry, meteorology...