History Final Exam - HIST 1020 Gaddis PDF

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HIST 1020 Gaddis...

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History Exam 1 1.16 revolutionary origins The revolutionary moment in the Atlantic world Key concept: The Enlightenment - Began with scientific revolution of 17th and 18th century - Adopted in various European countries in 18th century as new approach to understanding and impacting society o Thinkers like John Locke, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Adam Smith, JeanJacques Rousseau - Conceptualized as a distrust in existing institutions and conventions o Formulated beliefs that society should be governed by reason - Believed in equality of all mankind (because all mankind possessed reason) - Searching for universal laws to explain mankind Key concept: universal laws - Concepts and ideas that explained and applied to all mankind o Looking for a basis of truth outside religion alone - Problems and limitations of this approach? John Locke, 1632-1704 - Should apply reason to history of our own societies - Reason dictates that divine right monarchies are false - Societies were formed not by God but by men - Men engaged with their rulers in a “social contract” - Tyrannical governments violate the social contract - People had right to rebel against tyranny, create new social contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712-1778 - Man is inherently good - All men are born good and thus all men are equal - Society is a corrupting influence on man - Major work The Social Contract Adam Smith, 1723-1790 - All men are born with ability to reason o He compares himself, a philosopher to a street porter in innate ability - Men naturally pursue their own rational self interest - Men should be free to rise in society according to their abilities - Government should be set up to allow people to pursue their own self interest and success - Government should adopt a hands off model of economic control - Major work The Wealth of Nations

Using Enlightenment idea - Enlightenment thinkers were theoreticians and philosophers - Work not intended to be used as the basis of revolutions - Nonetheless, ideas were picked up by new classes and types of people Urban growth - Cities in the 17th and especially 18th century became denser, more populated - Easier for ideas to spread person to person - Easier for like minded groups to form Coffee houses and other gathering places - Coffee houses started in 17th century London - A new form of drink—and new form of discourse - Allowed free exchange of political ideas, even among non-elites - Relatively inexpensive Newspapers - 18th century brought more newspapers o Cheaper printing o Higher literacy - Newspapers become more specialized Political pamphlets and books - Took philosophical ideas from Enlightenment thinkers to advocate revolution - Widely distributed, inexpensively printed - Common Sense by Thomas Paine among most influential in American revolution Key concept: Population sovereignty - The idea that political power comes from and depends on the people - Came from the work of Enlightenment figures (particularly Locke) - Dependent on identity with mass of people sharing common language and history - The root of thinking of people with a common culture as a nation Key concept: free trade - The idea that o There should be no tariffs (taxes), quotas, or fees in trade o Markets should be unregulated by governments o Free labor (i.e. labor that is not enslaved) should be the basis of the economy o These tenets would result in a less exploitative, more just society - Descended from Enlightenment thinkers, most clearly Adam Smith Revolutionary rhetoric - Free trade, popular sovereignty, and other ideas were the ideological basis of Atlantic world revolutions - Translated from philosophical ideas to practical plans by more ordinary people

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How did thoughts translate into actions? How did philosophy become practical?

1.18 revolution begins Britain’s unclear relationship with colonies - Near constant war throughout 18th century to protect Empire - British Parliamentarians had competing visions of empire - Never defined relationship to America Britain’s unclear relationship w/ colonies - In absence of British dictates, American colonists defined their own relationship - Colonists implemented system of governance o Town councils (New England) o Colonial assemblies o Governor’s councils - By 1760s conceived of themselves as British citizens Britain turns to managing its colonies - After 7 Year War, British empire greatly expanded - Britain was also in severe debt from war - Britain’s national debt 13.5 times its annual revenue at war’s end Britain manages its colonies - 1763, Royal Proclamation forbade settlement west of Appalachians - 1764 Sugar Act to stop molasses smuggling - 1764 Currency Act - 1765 Stamp Act - How did this contradict revolutionary and Enlightenment ideas? Three forms of resistance - Colonial elites prepared legislative resistance - Middle class colonial merchants created economic resistance - Working class and common people participated in popular protest o Key concepts in bold Impacts of resistance - Stamp Act becomes impossible to enforce as stamp distributors all resign - Parliament repealed Stamp Act in 1766 - Can this be counted as the start of revolution? What counts as revolution? New laws, new forms of resistance - Townshend Act of 1767: new customs duties - Elite, middle class, working class resistance combined o Non importation and no consumption agreements o Political commentaries by women

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o Homespun clothing Helped forge colonial unity 1770 Boston Massacre o Intensified hatred of British troops as occupying force 1774 Coercive Acts

America declares rebellion - Coercive Acts (1774) declare Massachusetts in rebellion o Other states come to aid and form a Continental Congress. Meets late 1774 o Continental Congress meets again in May, 1775 o By then, first battles against British had been fought at Lexington and Concord America declares independence - Even at war, American colonies still thought of themselves as British citizens - 1776 is year Americans begin calling in earnest for independence o Spurred on by Common Sense and others - Key concept: Declaration of Independence signed in July 1776 1776 -

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British take New York City as base o Assemble largest force in British history  British citizen soldiers and thousands of German mercenaries (Hessians) Christmas 1776, Washington launches surprise attack, preserving the rebellion

1777-1778 - Americans win major battle at Saratoga, New York - Victory convinced France to ally with U.S. to fight Britain 1779-1783 - British become increasingly stretched financially o Support among citizens ever lower - French help keep the Americans in the battle - 1783, Washington and French forces, French Navy force Cornwallis to surrender at Yorktown. The war is over Ideological origins - Builds on immediate legacy of American Revolution o Many of some texts o See ideology transformed into action - Stems from decades of elite criticism of absolutist monarchy Economic origins of the French Revolution - France spends enormously during American Revolution o Worsens already great debt - Forces Louis XVI to convene Estates General in 1788

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o Had not met since 1614 o Sevres as a check on king’s absolute power Key concept: The 3 Estates o Clergy o Nobility o The people

The rise of the 3rd estate - 3rd estate delegation declares itself the National Assembly (1789) - Parisians storm the Bastille prison o City is effectively controlled by the people o News spreads into the countryside - August, 1789: revolutionary principles, Declaration of the Rights of Men published (Key concept) The Haitian colony (Saint Domingue) - One of the wealthiest colonies in the world o Produced about 60% of the world’s coffee, 40% of sugar o Exclusive trade with France - Population o 5% white people o 5% free black people o 90% enslaved black people The impact of the French Revolution - White planters welcomed revolution as a way to make more money (being able to trade with other nations) - Enslaved people learned about and spread news of rebellion - Brief insurgencies by free people of color began as early as 1789 - 1791 slave rebellion overthrows much of island Differing meanings of freedom and revolution - For white planters: o Free trade with other countries (rather than just France) o More profits o More control over own economic lives - For free black people o Equal rights as citizens o Full participation in society under revolutionary ideals - For enslaved people o Freedom from bondage o Determination over their own labor o Rights as citizens o Payment for labor

o Participation in society under revolutionary ideals Timeline of revolution in Saint-Domingue (Haiti) - 1790 Vincent Oge (free person of color) leads failed revolt. Is executed. - 1791 An assembly of enslaved people hold a meeting, decide to revolt - 1792 French troops arrive in Saint-Domingue; free blacks are given vote - 1793 French partially emancipate slaves; British invade to prevent further slave revolt - 1794 all slaves in French colonies freed - 1795-1799 Spain officially renounces all claim to Saint-Domingue, cedes it to France (1795) Toussaint Louverture is in control of armies that continue to fight, through the revolution is unfinished Haiti as an Atlantic revolution - Around 40,000 enslaved people brought from Africa yearly to colony o Huge percentage of population then newly from Africa in 1791 - Possible to consider this as African revolution as well 1.23 Revolutionary governments New government - Individual states (formerly colonies) drafted their own constitutions o Based on principles of popular sovereignty o Some more radical than others—Pennsylvania - Articles of Confederation (1781) basis for nation government o Small, weak, ineffectual o No power to levy taxes, regulate commerce, establish judges or federal law Ideological and economic impacts of revolution - U.S. encourages westward expansion (limited by British) - U.S. begins manufacturing own good and products for domestic use o Rather than importing - Most northern states pass laws for gradual emancipation Shays’ Rebellion (key concept) - Massachusetts farmers were restricted by bad economy o Many were deeply in debt - State supported creditors over farmers - Farmers, led by Shays, restricted access to courts to prevent foreclosures - Massachusetts militia violently ended revolt o Leaders initially sentenced to execution (later pardoned) - Exposes fault lines over who government should support, its basic functions and power Constitutional Convention, 1787

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Events like Shays’ rebellion prompted new meeting to rethink federal constitution (Articles of Confederation) Many competing ideas, including sticking with current system James Madison’s Virginia Plan emerges o 3 branches of government o Needed lots of debate and compromise

Debating the constitution - Debate occurred not just in private halls and among politicians but in public venues o Federalists o Anti-Federalists - July, 1788: Constitution finally ratified by majority of colonies o Even then, North Carolina, New York, Rhode Island had not voted to accept Rights and compromises, 1788-1791 - 1791: after much debate (and many demands) a national Bill of Rights passed o 10 Amendments to original constitution - Bill of Rights omissions o Women o Enslaved people o Non-property holders - Slavery and the 3/5 compromise - Did these new rules and documents represent a compromise of revolutionary principles? Timeline: France tries to establish a revolutionary government - 1791: Women demanded right to bear arms in support of revolution o Olympia De Gouges writes Declaration of the Rights of Women and of the Female Citizen - 1792-1793: The first French Republic declare o churches closed and clergy forced to take loyalty oaths o 1793 King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed - 1793-1794: The Terror o The Jacobins, led to Robespierre, execute enemies of the revolution o Aim to spread the revolution beyond France - 1799: Napoleon comes to power o Overthrows government o Adopts the Napoleonic Code (key concept)

Napoleon and freedom’s empire - Brings stability and security to France o Also begins to realize spread of revolutionary ideals o Expands French empire into Austria, Spain, Russia - Declares himself emperor in 1804

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o Continues to expand empire o Defeated in 1814 (comes back) o Finally defeated in 1815 at Waterloo Does Napoleon’s reign compromise revolutionary government? Why would citizens have given him this power?

Revolution moves toward stability - Toussaint Louverture remains leader throughout revolution o Sides with Spanish against French o French against British o Finally leaves both armies - In 1800, restarts plantation system o With free labor o Invites whites back - French troops (under Napoleon’s orders try to bring back slavery (1802) o Haitian forces winning victories until mass defection of one of Toussaint’s leaders o Toussaint is offered freedom in exchange for surrender  French turn on him and throw him in prison Saint-Domingue becomes Haiti - Haiti established in 1804 o Result of the only successful slave revolt in human history o The first Black republic o Led by Jean Jacques Dessalines - Republic in name only? o Martial republic-either a serf bound to plantation or soldier o Killed whites remaining on the island Haiti’s impact (key concept) - Inspired terror across the Atlantic world o Fear of slave insurrection o Fear of revolt and control by lowest members of society - Ironically, increased slavery elsewhere o Other slave colonies (Cuba) ramped up sugar production o French defeat led to sale of Louisiana Territory to Americans and expansion of slavery there

Overview - Spanish colonies subject to authoritarian control o Sharp class divide o White people hugely outnumbered by Natives, by Black slaves, by mixed race people

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o Elites terrified by Haiti and the possibility of revolution from below (key concept) 1808: Napoleon invades Spain and Portugal, deposing and exiling rulers o forces Latin America to take action to have a functioning government o revolution thrust upon colonies

Revolutions - Mexico, 1810-1821 o Began as peasant uprising led by priests o Years of war finally led to relatively stable independent country - Brazil o Deposed ruler of Portugal came to Brazil, made it center of Portuguese empire (1807-1821) o After returning to Portugal, Brazilian elites discontent led to establishment of constitutional monarchy for Brazil  Under leadership of Portuguese king’s son - Simon Bolivar (Venezuela) and Jose de San Martin (Argentina) o 1810-1824 waged wars against Spanish in various colonies o Elite led rebellions o Idea of a unified Latin American state (Bolivar)  Individual colonial rebellions and local identities prevail 1.25 Limits of revolution Social and economic life in the new Haiti - Plantation economy was ended o And most of the plantation entirely destroyed - Free people did not want to do sugar and coffee work o Reconciling revolutionary principles with economic needs - World trade embargoes ensured poverty - World economy slowly starting to change The Haitian Republic and the World - Haiti declared a republic in 1804 - United States refused to recognize Haitian government o Continued to see it as a place in rebellion o Did not formally recognize until 1860s - France recognizes Haiti in 1825—at a cost o Demands payment of 150 million francs as repayment  Equivalent of about 21 billion today Impact of Atlantic slavery - Haiti an anticolonial, anti-slavery revolution above all - Rather than spreading anti-slavery sentiment, turned other revolutionary countries against Haiti

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Victory over France o Forces Louisiana Purchase (1803)  Expands American slavery

Long term impacts of Haitian revolution - Non-trade and repayments cripple Haiti’s economy o Goes from being one of wealthiest places on Earth to one of poorest (in present day) o Underdeveloped economy leads to severe environmental degradation - Continued to be a symbol of revolution (until present day) - How can we use history to understand the present? - Is Haiti’s revolution ultimately a success? Slave rebellions - Slave revolts were common in most slave societies - Some Atlantic World slave revolutions o 1739 Stono Rebellion, South Carolina o 1760-1761 Jamaican insurrection o 1795 revolutions (inspired by Haiti)  Fedon Rebellion—Grenada  Curaçao  Venezuela  Demarara Rebellion (Guyana) o 1800 Gabriel Prosser rebellion (Virginia) o 1822 Denmark Vesey rebellion (South Carolina) o 1831 Nat Turner rebellion (Virginia) - Far more numerous than represented here or reported German Coast Uprising, 1811 (Louisiana) - During Haitian Revolution, Deslondes family fled the island o Brought their enslaved people with them o Moved to Louisiana - Charles Deslondes among slaves brought o Inspired by Haitian Revoltuion - January 8, 1811 o 500 enslaves people overthrow masters o Begin march toward New Orleans - After 3 days, revolution is put down by militia and federal troops o Aftermath: leaders executed, heads put on pikes along river, stretching 60 miles - Revolt, despite failure, directly inspired by revolutionary principles Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831, Virginia) - Nat Turner o Enslaved religious leader

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o Southampton County, Virginia Turner credited visions from God with idea for attack In August, 1831 he and other enslaves people attacked slaveholders o Killed around 60 before being subdued Aftermath: spread fear throughout South o More restrictive laws around literacy, travel, etc passed for slaves

Slavery’s end - Britain: trade outlawed, 1807, Britain polices African waters to stop traders; slavery abolished 1838 - America: trade outlawed, 1808. Slavery abolished and slaves emancipated, 1865 - Chile: life long slavery outlawed, 1811 - France: re-instituted in the colonies in 1802; abolished 1848 - Brazil: abolishes slavery, 1888 Abolitionism and new forms of revolution - Began as popular movement in late 18th/early 19th century o In Britain, spread to the U.S. - Put pressure on governments to end slavery - Never a large group of people o Initially led by elite white people o Eventually by former slaves o A smaller, less popular revolution o Put revolution back into hands of individuals, away from government Abolitionist iconography and the market - Part of shift in revolutionary ideology was its commodification (key concept) - 1787 Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade designed kneeling slave logo o Had Josiah Wedgwood make pottery cameos of it - Shipment of cameos sent to America - Became a fashion statement o Bracelets, hair decoration, inlaid gold snuff boxes, etc Wedgwood, revolution, and free labor - Wedgwood one of chief proponents of abolition - Also owner of one of first industrialized pottery factories - How does the relationship of owner to worker change in industrial setting? - How does the master of free labor have coercive power over workers? - Irony of anti-slavery support by Wedgwood? o No control over enslaved labor, but over free Revolutionary review - Enlightenment ideals o Associated thinkers?

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Revolutionary rhetoric: Enlightenment ideals translated o Associated principles? o How did these ideas spread? Revolutionary battles: rhetoric tuned to action o Where? o How did rhetoric translate into battle? Revolutionary governments: action formalized (or not) into government Limits of revolution o How did the meaning of revolution change? How did associated actions change?

1.30 Local industrial revolution Pre-industrial Europe - Largely agrarian and marked by feudal relationship to land o 3% of continent urban - Production highly local o Home as a site of production - Work was largely from ascribed status o Parent’s trade o Artisanal guilds Industrial Revolution - From late 1700s to mid-1800s o With much longer impact o Process of technical innovation rather than complete industrialization - Transformations o Economic o Social o Environmental - Arguably the first period ...