How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions PDF

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Dr. Horwath...

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How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions Monday, September 12, 2016

3:53 PM

The Scientific Method -

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Theory: explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize what we have observed. ○ No matter how reasonable a theory sounds, it must be tested. ○ Can lead to biased observations. ○ A good theory should: § Organize observations § Imply predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or derive applications. § Stimulate further research so that the theory can be revised and thus better organized. Hypothesis: Testable predictions. ○ Specify the behaviors or events which support a given theory. Operational definitions: Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study. ○ Done to avoid biases in research. ○ Enables others to replicate the study with different factors. Can test theories through descriptive methods, correlational methods and experimental methods.

Description The Case Study -

Case Study: an in depth study of an individual or group in hopes of finding universal principles. ○ While they can be telling of what Can happen, atypical subjects may mislead researchers to draw false conclusions.

Naturalistic Observation -

Naturalistic Observation: observing and recording behavior in a natural environment without manipulating or controlling the situation. ○ Does not explain behavior, it describes it.

The Survey

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Looks at many cases in less depth. Asks questions and people report their answers.

Wording effects -

Subtle changes to the wording of questions have major effects on how they are answered (People are more approving of aid to the needy than welfare).

Random Sampling -

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Sampling Bias: We tend to generalize observations of vivid cases rather than looking at the whole. To obtain a representative sample of a group, one must seek a random sample. ○ A small representative sample of 100 people is better than an unrepresentative sample of 500. Always consider the sample before accepting survey findings.

Correlation -

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Through naturalistic observation, one might find that two traits are related, this is called correlation. Correlation Coefficient: A statistical measure of how closely two things correlated. ○ Helps show how well either one predicts the other. ○ Helps us see the world more clearly by revealing how related two things are. Scatterplots are very revealing in attempting for find correlation.

Regression toward the Mean -

The tendency for extreme scores/events to return to the average. ○ Extraordinary events tend to return to ordinary events. ○ There is no need to invent explanations when behavior returns to normal, it is just regressing toward the mean.

Correlation and Causation -

Correlation ≠ Causation ○ Correlation helps predict, not explain. ○ Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such.

Experimentation -

Enables researchers to isolate the effects of one or more factors by: ○ Manipulating the factors of interest ○ Holding constant variables ○ Create experimental group (participants receive the treatment). ○ Create control group (participants do not revive the treatment)

Create control group (participants do not revive the treatment). § Researchers randomly assign participants to get a more representative study. Unlike correlational studies, which reveals natural relationships, experiments manipulate factors to determine effect. Double-blind procedure: Neither the participants, nor the administrators are aware which group is receiving which treatment (placebo or real). ○ Placebo effect: effects caused by expectations alone. ○

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Independent and Dependent Variables -

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Independent Variable: The factor in an experiment which can be manipulated and varied. ○ Other factors which could influence results are called Confounding Variables. Dependent Variable: A factor which may be influenced by one or more independent variables. Both variables are given operational definitions.

Predicting Real Behavior -

Researchers do not intend to recreate reality, they intend to test theoretical principles. ○ It is the resulting principles—not the specific findings—that explain everyday behaviors.

Psychology's Research Ethics Protecting Research Participants -

The use of animals in research is a controversial subject. ○ Should human life be placed above those of animals? Many agencies have guidelines to protect animals under experimentation. Universities often screen experiments through an animal ethics board. Psychology concerned for humans and sensitive to animals serves the welfare of both. People usually have to give informed consent prior to an experiment, must be kept from harm and discomfort, must be held confidential, full debrief people.

Values in Research -

Sometimes we see what we want to see; value colors the facts. Wording also reflects values....