Human Anatomy Exam 1 PDF

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Course was taught by Wanda Hargroder was an upper level Kinesiology course, required to be taken by Biology and Kinesiology majors at LSU....

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Kin 2500 Study Guide: Exam 1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Human Body Topics to Know:  Definition of Anatomy  Levels of body organization and the body systems  Life processes  Anatomical Terminology  Body Cavities  Abdominopelvic regions and quadrants  Human body and disease  Medical imaging  Measuring the human body Definitions  Anatomy: the study of structure  Dissection: the careful cutting for knowledge or research  Physiology: the study of function  Why hasn’t research at the molecular level of anatomy changed in years? Because we as humans have not changed in years Diagnostic Techniques  Inspection: any trauma (rash, bruises, etc.)  Palpation: actually touching the body, with pressure  Auscultation: listening. You have a triangle of auscultation on your back o Auscultation is done with a stethoscope  Percussion: tapping the surface of the body with fingertips and listening to the resulting echo Life Processes  Reproduction: formation of new cells for growth, repair, production of a new individual  Metabolism: the sum of all chemical processes in the body  Growth/development: increase in body size due to increase in the size of cells, number cells, or amount of material surrounding cells  Responsiveness: the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes in the internal and external environment  Organization: the body exhibits a complex structure of order  Adaptation: the body’s ability to defer anatomical structure, physiological structure, or survival traits  Regulation: the body’s ability to maintain homeostasis Organization of the Human Body 1. Chemical Level: includes molecules and atoms. Ex: DNA, glucose 2. Cellular: molecules combine to form cells. Ex: Muscle Cells, Blood Cells

3. Tissue: groups of cells that work together to perform a common function (connective tissue, nervous tissue) 4. Organs: different types of tissues are joined together. Ex: Stomach, Heart 5. Organ System: related organs with a common function. Ex: Digestive system a. Certain organs can belong to more than one system 6. Organismal : all the parts of the human body functioning together What are the two most important bodily systems in maintaining wellness? The nervous system and the endocrine system Anatomical Terminology  What is anatomical position? o This is the standard position of reference for the description of anatomical structures. The subject stands in anterior view, arms straight out to the sides with palms facing forward, eyes forward, feet flat and directed forward, and head at eye level.  What is reclining position? o If the body is laying face down it is in the prone position. o If the body is laying face up it is in the supine position.

Terminology

Cephalic: Head  Cranial: skull  Facial: face  Frontal: forehead  Temporal: temple  Orbital: eyes  Otic: ears  Buccal: cheeks  Nasal: nose  Oral: mouth  Mental: chin  Occipital: base of the skull Cervical: Neck Trunk: trunk of the body  Sternal: breastbone  Mammary: breast  Umbilical: naval  Coxal: hip  Inguinal: groin/inner thigh  Thoracic: chest  Abdominal: abdomen  Pelvic: pelvis  Pubic: pubis  Scapular: shoulder blade  Vertebral: spinal cord/column  Dorsal: back  Lumbar: lower back Upper Limbs  Acromial: shoulder  Axillary: armpit  Brachial: upper arm  Antecubital: front of elbow  Antebrachial: forearm  Olecranal/Cubital: back of elbow  Carpal: wrist Manual  Palmar/volar: palm  Digital/digits/phalangeal: fingers  Pollex: thumb  Dorsum: back of the hand Lower Limbs  Femoral: thigh  Patellar: knee  Crural: front side of lower leg  Sacral: Base of spine  Coccygeal: tailbone

 Gluteal: buttock  Perineal: anus  Popliteal: hollow behind knee  Sural: back of lower leg or calf Pedal: foot  Tarsal: ankle  Digital/digits/phalangeal: toes  Dorsum: top of foot  Hallux: big toe  Plantar: sole of the foot  Calcaneal: heel Planes and Sections of the Body  Sagittal: divides the body into right and left sections  Parasagittal: divides the body into unequal right and left sections  Midsagittal: divides the body into equal left and right sections  Frontal : Separates the anterior and posterior side of the body  Transverse: divides the body into superior and inferior  Oblique: divides into an angle, lies at an angle to all other planes Directional Terms  Superior: towards the head  Inferior: towards the feet  Rostral: relating to the nose and mouth region  Caudal: relating to the tail or the posterior of the body  Anterior: near the front of the body  Posterior: near the back of body  Ventral: toward the belly  Dorsal: toward the back  Medial: nearer to the midline of the body  Lateral: farther away from the midline of the body  Intermediate: between two structures  Ipsilateral: one the same side of the midline as another structure  Contralateral: on the opposite side of the midline as another structure  Proximal: nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk  Distal: further away from the attachment of a limb to the trunk  Superficial: toward or on the surface of the body  Deep: away from the surface of the body  External: toward the outside of a structure  Internal: toward the inside of a structure  Cranial : Relating to the skull or head; towards the head

What side of a shark is the fine on? Dorsal side

Body Cavities 1. The Cranial Cavity a. Formed by cranial bones b. Houses brain and spinal cord c. Continuous with the vertebral spinal canal d. What are the meninges? 3 layers of protective tissues. 2. The Thoracic Cavity a. Formed by the ribs, sternum, thoracic portion of the spinal cords b. How many pleural cavities are there? 2. They are a potential space between the layers of the pleura that surrounds a lung c. The Mediastinum is the central portion of the thoracic cavity i. It contains all the thoracic cavity organs except: lungs ii. It extends from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rub to the diaphragm, contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels d. What does the pericardial cavity surround? Heart. It is a space between the layers of the pericardium that surrounds the heart e. What muscle separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity? The diaphragm 3. The Abdominopelvic Cavity a. Abdominal Cavity: contains the kidneys, adrenal glands, stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and small intestines b. Pelvic Cavity: contains the urinary bladder, portions of the large intestines, and the internal organs of the reproductive system. Does the excretory and reproductive functions Membranes of the Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Cavity  Serous Membrane: a double layer membrane that covers the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities o Parietal Layer: more external, lines the cavity o Visceral Layer: lines the wall of the organs and cells o Together these two layers form the serous membrane or sac o The two layers are very slippery and thin and it is difficult toe separate the two  Pleura Membrane: serous membrane associated with the lungs  Pericardium Membrane: serous membrane that is associated with the heart  Peritoneum : Serous membrane associated with the abdominal

Human

Body and Disease

Disorder- abnormality of function. (ADD, ADHD, Autism) Disease- anything that upsets or causes imbalance in homeostasis. If nothing is wrong we have good homeostasis  Symptoms- something that is subjective. A change in the body felt by the patient. (different stress levels, levels of pain)  Signs- something visible (rash, broken bone)  Lesion- cut in the skin  Epidemiology- how disease is transmitted. People who do work on different strands of flu  Pharmacology- how drugs are dispensed and used to treat disease  Diagnosis- the skill of determining the differences between diseases Know differences and how they are diagnosed  

Medical Imaging  Radiography  MRI  CT  CCTA  Ultrasound  PET  Radionuclide Scan  Endoscopy MRI 

The body is exposed to a high-energy magnetic field, which causes protons in body fluids and tissues to arrange themselves in relation to the field. The pulse of radio waves “reads” these ion pattern and a color-coded image is assembled on a video monitor. The result is a two- or three-dimensional blueprint of cellular chemistry. It is used to view things like soft tissue

 Computed Tomography (CT) or CAT Scan

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Computer-assisted radiography in which an x-ray beam traces an arc at multiple angles around a section of the body. The resulting transverse section of the body, called a CT scan is shown on a video monitor.

 Coronary (Cardiac) Computed Tomography Angiography (CCTA)  Computer assisted radiography in which an iodine-containing contrast medium is injected into a vein and a beta-blocker is given to increase heart rate. Then, numerous x-ray beams and transmits them to a computer, which transforms the information into a three-dimensional image of the coronary blood vessels on a monitor. The image procured can be generated in 20 seconds.

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Ultrasound Scanning

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High-frequency sound waves produced by a handheld wand reflect off body tissues and are detected by the same instrument. The image which may be still or moving is called a sonogram and is shown on the video monitor.

 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)  A substance that emits positrons (positively charged particles) is injected into the body where it is taken up by tissues. The collision of the positrons with negatively charged electrons in the body tissues produces gamma rays (similar to x-rays) that are detected by gamma cameras and constructs a PET scan shows where the injected substances is being used in the body. In the image the black and blue colors indicate minimal activity and the red, orange, and yellow, and white indicate areas of increasing activity

 Radionuclide Scanning  This is introduced intravenously into the body and carried by the blood to the tissue to be imaged. Gamma rays emitted by the radionuclide are detected by a gamma camera outside the subject and fed into a computer. The computer constructs a radionuclide scan and displays it in color on a video monitor. Areas of intense color take up a lot of the radionuclide and

represent high tissue activity, areas of less color take up smaller amounts of the radionuclide and represent low tissue activity. 

Endoscopy  The visual examination of the inside of the body organs or cavities using a lighted instrument with lenses called endoscope. The image is viewed through an eyepiece on the endoscope or projected onto a monitor

 Chapter 2 Cells Introduction  Cells are the basic, living, structural and functional units of the body  Cell biology or cytology  Cells perform chemical reactions to create life processes  Compartmentalization: cells will work together to perform a certain function, however, they have to be similar cells A Generalized Cell- Three Principal Parts 1. Plasma Membrane 2. Cytoplasm 3. Nucleus What do cells do? 1. Cover skin (epithelial tissue) 2. Line cavities (small intestines)

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Storage (adipose cells make fat) Movement (cells to muscle cells) Connection- forms collagen and ligaments Defense- lymph nodes Communication- neurons Reproduction

Plasma Membrane  Structure: the cell’s flexible outer surface  Function: regulates the flow of materials into and out of a cell. Allows communication in between cells and their environment Cytoplasm  Structure: All of the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus  Function: cytosol-fluid portion organelles found in the cytosol have individual functions Nucleus  Structure: a large organelle with DNA found inside of it  Function: chromosomes found within the nucleus contain genes that control cellular storage and function

Chapter 3 Types of Tissue o What is a tissue? A tissue is a group of cells that usually have a common origin and function and function together to carry out specific activities o Body tissues can be classified into 4 basic types of tissues. Describe their function: o Epithelial: covering our body structure, line hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it forms glands. Allowing the body to interact with internal and external environments. o Connective: protects and supports the body and its organs, stores fat for energy use, provides immunity to disease causing organisms, responsible for binding organs together. o Muscular: composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force o Nervous: detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds to those by generating electrical signals, called nerve action potentials, that activate muscular contractions or gland secretions o Structure determine Cell Junction o Cell Junction: this is what is involved in different layers of tissue, avenues for passage or binding. There are 5 major types of cell junctions o 1. Tight Junctions: consists of web-like strands of trans membrane proteins that fuse together the outside surfaces of two plasma membranes. Inhibit the passage of substances between cells (this is their function) o Ex: you would find these tight junctions in epithelial tissue that line the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder. These are seen in parts of the body where you don’t want liquids to mix. Epithelial tissues have these. This cell junction inhibits passage of substance between cells o 2. Adherens Junctions: contains plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton o Transmembrane glycoproteins called cadherins join the cells. o This type of junction helps epithelial surfaces resist sepration during contractile activities. Thank of band-aids (resist separating wounds) o Ex: food moving through the intestines this keeps it from separating o 3. Desmosomes: contain plaque and have trans-membrane glycoproteins that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another, however, unlike adherens junctions. This plaque of this junction, does not attach to microfilaments. It attaches to elements of the cytoskeleton known as intermediate filaments. This consists of the protein keratin

o Purpose of desmosomes: is to prevent epidermal cells from separating under tension and cardiac muscle from pulling apart during contraction. o 4. Hemidesmosomes: half of desmosomes o 5. Gap Junctions: membrane proteins connexins form tiny fluid-filled tunnels called connexons that connect neighboring cells. o Unlike tight junctions (sealded wall), the plasma membrane os separated by a narrow intracellular gap.  This type of junction allows for the transportation of ions, impulses, and small molecules between cells Epithelial Tissue o Consists of cells arranged in continuous sheets in either single or multiple layers o Epithelial cells are avascular (does not have its own blood supply) but it has its own nerve supply o They have a high rate of cell division (in skin, lining of stomach) o Epithelial tissues have 3 major functions: 1. Protect against abrasive influence of the environment 2. Release products produced by the cells onto the free surface 3. Serve as a selective barrier to limit or aid the transfer of substances into or out of the body Structure of Epithelial Tissue Surfaces o The surface that faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen of an internal organ, or a tubular duct, is called an apical (free) surface. This substance may contain microvilli or cili. Free surface=apical surface o Papanicolaou Test- microscopic examination of epithelium cells, that have been scarped off the apical layer of tissue o The surface that faces the adjacent cells on either side is the lateral surface. This surface may contain tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions. o The surface that is opposite of the apical surface is the basal surface. This surface is the deepest layer of epithelial cells and adheres to extracellular material such as the basement membrane, a thin extracellular layer o The basement membrane is composed of two parts: o Basal Lamina: closer to the epithelial cells. Contains proteins such as lamin and collagen o Reticular Lamina: closer to the underlying connective tissue and contains proteins such as collagen produced by connective tissue cells called fibroblasts

Arrangement of Cells into Layers Reflecting Location and Function Classification of Epithelial Cells by Arrangement of Cells in Layers Simple: o A single layer of cells that function in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, and absorption Pseudostratified: o Appears to have multiple layers of cells. All cells attach at basement membrane; some cells do not extend to the apical surface, can be ciliated or not ciliated Stratified: o Consists of two or more layers that protect underlying tissues in location of considerable wear and tear Classification of Epithelial Cells by Cell Shape Squamous: o Thin, which allow for rapid passage of substances through them Cuboidal: o As tall as they are wide, shaped like cubes; may have microvilli at the apical surface function in secretion and absorption Columnar: o Taller than they are wide; protect underlying tissues. They may have microvilli at the apical surface in secretion and absorption Transitional: o Change shape from squamous and back to cuboidal

Simple Squamous Epithelium

o Function: present at sites where filtration, diffusion, and secretion occur o Location: o Lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic system- endothelium o Forms serous membranes, peritoneum, pleura, or pericardiummesothelium o Also found in air sacs of lungs and Bowmans capsule of the kidneys Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

o Function: secretion and absorption o Location: lines many smaller ducts of glands

Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Function: Secretion and absorption. Secrete mucous to serve as a lubticant. Location: lines the gastrointestinal tract, ducts of many glands and gallbladder. Also respiratory and reproductive tract

Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Function: Cilia move the mucus and foreign particles away from the airway Structure: Lines the gastrointestinal tract, ducts of many glands and gallbladder

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Function: Ciliated: secretes mucus that traps foreign particles and the cilia sweep away the mucous Non-ciliated: absorption and protection Location Ciliated: airways of our upper respiratory tract Non-ciliated: absorption and protection Stratified Squamous Epithelium- epidermis of the skin

Function: Protection against abrasion, water loss, UV, radiation, and foreign invaders. Serve as first line defense against microbes Location: Keratinzed: superficial layer of the skin Nonkeratinized: lines wet surfaces such as lining of the mouth, esophagus, tongue, etc. mositened

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Function: Protection and limited secretion and absorption Location: ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands. Very uncommon

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Function: Protection and Secretion Location: Allows urinary organs to stretch and hold fluids without rupturing, while still serving as protective lining

Transitional Epithelium- lines the urinary bladder

Function: Allows urinary organs to stretch and hold fluids without rupturing, still serving as protective lining Location: lines the urinary bladder and portions of the vagina and uterus Epithelial Tissues: Glandular Epithelia Endocrine- enter the interstitial fluid and then diffuse directly into the blood stream without flowing through a duct, these secretions are called hormones Location: glands. Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, etc.

Exocrine Epithelial Tissue- secrete their products into ducts that empty on to the surface of t...